Summary of the First Chapter
Question: Give a brief account /overview of Indian History from ancient to Modern Time:
Pre-historic The earliest Indian history dates back to stone ages of 400000 - 200000 BC. The earliest settlers in India can be classified into two classes, namely Paleolithic man and Neolithic man. Paleolithic man lived on flesh of animals, wild fruits and vegetables. Historians suggest that Paleolithic man belonged to the Negrito race and was short, dark skinned and flat nosed. Remains of implements used by the Paleolithic man were discovered in Rajastan, Gujarat, Bihar, and southern India.
Question: Give a brief account /overview of Indian History from ancient to Modern Time:
Pre-historic The earliest Indian history dates back to stone ages of 400000 - 200000 BC. The earliest settlers in India can be classified into two classes, namely Paleolithic man and Neolithic man. Paleolithic man lived on flesh of animals, wild fruits and vegetables. Historians suggest that Paleolithic man belonged to the Negrito race and was short, dark skinned and flat nosed. Remains of implements used by the Paleolithic man were discovered in Rajastan, Gujarat, Bihar, and southern India.
Remains of
Neolithic men belonging to the new Stone Age are found all over India. The
Neolithic civilization was well advanced over the Paleolithic man. They
cultivated land, grew corn and fruits, domesticated animals, made pottery and
used fire. They lived in caves and decorated their caves with painting,
constructed boats and went to the sea, spun cloths and buried their dead.
Copper age
and Iron Age succeeded Stone Age. The Indus valley civilization is a splendid
example of that period.
Indus Valley Civilization -
Archeological excavations in Mohanjo-Daro, Harappa
(now in Pakistan) and trial excavations in Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, Gujarat
and Rajastan proved that a highly civilized community flourished in that area
around 3000 BC. This civilization was contemporary to the Egyptian, Assyrian,
and Babylonian civilizations. Known as Indus Valley Civilization, it flourished
more than 1000 years. The civilization was advanced with well-planned cities
and buildings built with baked bricks. The streets were laid at right angles
with covered drains. Buildings and location were arranged for the different
strata of the society. There were public buildings such as the Great Bath at
Mohanjo-Daro and huge granaries. Several metals such as copper, bronze, lead
and tin were in use
They
domesticated animals including camel, goats, water buffalo and fouls. The
Harappans cultivated grains such as wheat and barley. Cotton and woolen cloths
and earthen vessels were in use. They traded with other parts of India and
other contemporary civilizations. The Harappan society was divided according to
professions. Indications are there that there was a proper government and the
people worshipped deities in male and female forms.
By 1700 BC,
the Harappan culture was on the decline probably due to repeated flooding or
the propagation of the desert. It is also said that invading barbarians could
be the reason for declining the Harappan culture. When Aryans arrived in 1500
BC the Harappan culture was partially wiped out.
Aryans -
1500 BC had seen the arrival of Aryans to India. They established
small agrarian communities throughout Punjab and adopted the agricultural life
style prevailed in the area. The horse that came with the Aryans lead to the
formation of cavalry and the rapid spread of the Aryan culture through out
North India. The Aryans developed a rich tradition and composed Vedas. The
caste system evolved during this period. Originally castes were a division of
occupation but later transformed to depend on birth. Some Historians say that
the caste system was existing among the natives and Aryans only adapted to it.
During the 6th century BC Buddhism and Jainism emerged in India.
These two religions preached non-violence, tolerance and self-discipline. As
land became property and the society divided on occupation and caste, conflicts
and disorders cropped up. Organized power to deal with these problems lead to
formation of village councils, states and even vast empires.
Alexander The Great
In 327 BC Alexander of Macedonia
conquered a large part of the northwest India. He entered India through the
Hindukush. As a great ruler, he developed good relations with the local
authorities while establishing his garrisons. While returning back due to the
pressure of his war weary soldiers, he left these areas to be ruled by Greek
governors. Chandragupta Maurya fought the Macedonians and defeated them. Gradually
these states were lost out to Indian states. But the contact between the two
cultures put a lasting influence on Indian art and architecture.
Mauryan Empire
The
successor of Chandragupta was his son Bindusara who reigned from 300BC to
273BC. He was a very strong ruler and maintained a friendly relation with the
Hellenic west established by his father. Bindusara had many sons and when he
died, Asoka, one of his sons, took over.
Asoka, the
greatest emperor of all, accessed to the throne four years after his father's
death and ruled India for 36~37 years. Asoka suppressed a fresh revolt in
Taxila and conquered Kalinga. Even though victorious, the Kalinga war was a
turning point in Asoka's life. The misery and bloodshed of the war awakened his
feelings of repentance and sorrow. It made him devoted to the practice of 'Dharma'
ultimately changing his State policies. He embraced Buddhism and spread the
teachings of Buddha to his subjects through inscriptions on rocks and pillars,
in local dialects, throughout the country. During his reign Buddhism flourished
in West Asia and in his southern neighboring countries.
The Mauryan
Empire broke up after the death of Asoka in 232BC and divided among his sons.
Altogether there were ten kings in the Mauryan dynasty. The disintegration of
Maurya Empire invited invaders from central Asia seeking fortunes in India.
The Mauryan
economy was agrarian. The state owned huge farms, farm labors and slaves for
cultivation. Income for the state was from taxes levied on agriculture, land,
trade and industrial products such as handicrafts. Industries such as arms,
agricultural implements, ships for river navigation, weaving, handicrafts and
cloth industry flourished during this period.
Gupta
Empire-
The Gupta Empire in 4th century AD is considered
as the golden age of Indian history. The Guptas ruled India for more than two
centuries. Chandragupta I was the first in the Gupta Dynasty to assume the
imperial title of 'Supreme King of Kings'. He strengthened his position by a
matrimonial alliance with Lichchhavis.
During the
Gupta Era, classical art forms emerged and treatises on grammar, mathematics,
astronomy, medicine etc. were written. 'Kamasutra', the great work on the art
of love, was created during this period. Science and literature registered
considerable progress. The great Kalidasa (literature) and Aryabhata
(astronomy) lived in this era. The famous Ajanta and Ellora caves were created
during this period. Even though the rulers followed orthodox Hinduism, peaceful
co-existence of religions was recorded by Chinese travellers like Fa Hien.
Southern Kingdoms
While
turmoil was brewing up and kingdoms were rising and falling in the north, the
south India remained comparatively calm and stable. The Pallavas, Cholasand Pandyas shared
the power in the Tamil Country. Cheras ruled Kerala andChalukyas reigned
Karnataka. Towards the close of the second century AD, after the death of
'Gauthamiputra Satkarni' the Satavahana Empire broke up into
pieces and continued to rule the Andras until 'Ikshvakus' took over.
During the
reign of Pallavas, Kanchi became a great center of Brahmanical and Buddhist learning.
Many of the famous temples were built during this era. The Pallava artists from
Kanchi might have helped to build great temples in Cambodia and Java.
The
Chalukyas rose
to power in Karnata or the Canarese speaking country in the 6th century
AD with Vatapi (present Badami) as capital. The real founder of the dynasty was
Pulikesin I who performed 'aswamedha yaga' to access to power. His sons
extended the empire in all directions. Pulikesin II (609-642) consolidated his
power in Maharastra and conquored nearly the whole of Deccan. By 753 AD,
Vikramaditya II, the Chalukya king was overthrown by Dandidurga and laid
foundation for a new empire called Rastrakutas.
The
Rastrakutas Empire extended
from south Gujarat, Malva and Baghalkhand in the north to Tnajore to the south.
In 973 Tailia II, a descendent from the early Chalukyas, overthrew the dynasty.
By 850
AD, Cholas had risen to power and ruling the south Tamil
Country from Tanjore. Under Rajaraja I (985-1018) and his son Rajendra Chola I
(1018-1048) Cholas conquered the whole of Tamil Country. They went as far as
Ganges and asserted their power over Ceylon, Nicobar Islands, parts of the
Malay peninsula and the Indian Archipelego. Rajendra defeated Manipala I of
Bengal. He also vanquished Chalukyas at Musangi. The Chola Empire declined
after Rajendra Chola Kulathunga. The Pandyas annexed the southern part of the
empire. In the country between Godavari and the Ganges rose the empires of
Kalinga and Orissa.
Pandyas occupied the present Madurai
and Thirunelveli District with part of old Travancore. They excelled in trade
and learning. A Pandya king sent an emissary to the Roman Emperor Augustus in
the first century BC. The Pandya kingdom rose to fame during the 13th century.
Kafur conquered the kingdom in early 14th century. Vijayanagara
Empire absorbed it after a brief period.
In
1328 Hoysala Empire fell to Mohamed Bin Tughluq. After the
withdrawal of Tughluq, Vijayanagar Empire and Bahmani Sultanate were founded in
the south.
Vijayanagar
Empire: This
kingdom of Hindu alliance was founded in 1336 with capital at Hampi to counter
the Muslim power. Vijayanagar Empire grew to be the strongest and wealthiest
Hindu kingdom for two centuries. Under the rule of Bukka I, almost all of south
India was under its rule.
The feud
between the neighbours stirred up many bloody battles inflicting defeats on
each other. But by 1482 Vijayanagar Empire improved as a result of
disintegration of Bahmani Sultanate. In 1520 king Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagar
conquered Bijapur. The empire reached its peak over the following years. But
the decline also started with it. A number of uprisings divided the empire
internally while the Muslim Sultanates formed a new alliance. In 1565 the
Sultanate coalition defeated Vijayanagar army in Talikota. As a result, the
power of the region was passed on to Muslim rulers or local Chieftains. But
ultimately, Aurengaseb defeated Bahmani rulers and their kingdoms were annexed
to the Mughal Empire.
Delhi Sultanate
Mohamed
of Ghur's expedition
in 1175 against Multan and subsequent invasion of Gujarat, Peshawar and Lahore
and his victory over Rajputs in 1192 laid foundations of Muslim domination in
India. Qtub-ud-din Aibak, his slave general annexed different parts of North
India during the years followed.
Iltutmish: Aram Baksh succeeded him
as Sultan Aram Shah. But Iltutmish of Ilbari deposed him and
accented to the throne. He brought control over different rebellious parts of
the Sultanate. Before his death in 1236, he captured Mundawar, Malwa and Ujjain
and defeated Malik of Bengal, Yildiz and Qabacha.
Rukh-ud-din
Firoze Shah who
succeeded Iltutmish was a misfit and was dethroned and killed in Nov. 1236. The
Amirs and Nobles accepted Razzia, daughter of Iltutmish, to the
throne. But being a woman she had a tough time and rebellious nobles put her to
death in 1240.
Muiz-ud-din
Bahram and Ala-ud-din
Masud are the rulers who succeeded Razzia. Both were regarded as
worthless and incompetent. During their reign Mongols plundered Punjab.
Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud: By
1246, the Amirs and Maliks crowned Nasir-ud-din Mohamed, a younger son of
Iltutmish. Since he spent most of his time in prayers, his minister,
Giyas-ud-din Balban was running the country.
Giyas-ud-din
Balban: After
the death of Nasir-ud-din, Gias-ud-din accented to the throne. He strengthened
the army and subdued rebellions. Balbans's strong army helped him to check the
Mongol advances to India. He died in 1287 after a reign of 22 years.
The rulers
who succeeded Balban were weak and unworthy. In1290, Jalal-ud-din Firoz
Shah deposed Muiz-ud-din Khaliqubad, grandson of Balban
and established Khalji Dynasty.
Ala-ud-din
Khalji: In
1296, immediately after the murder of Sultan, Ala-ud-din proclaimed himself as
the Sultan of Delhi. To safeguard his throne, he eliminated the supporters of
former Sultan.
Ala-ud-din
fought with the Mongols and defeated them. He strengthened his army and took up
military expeditions and annexed Gujarat, Ranthanbhor and Mewar. His passion
for the beautiful queen Padmini lead to the siege of Chitor. When finally
Chitor fell, the queen burned herself to death. Ala-ud-din conquered Deccan
under the command of Malik Kafur. His expedition between 1307 and 1311 took him
up to Cape-Comorin, the southern tip of India. Thus the whole of India was
under the Sultanate of Delhi.
Qutub-ud-din
Mubarak: Ala-ud-din
died in 1316. His son Qutub-ud-din Mubarak ruled India till 1320. In 1320, one
of Khursarv's Parvari (low caste convert)
associates stabbed him to death. After his death Khursrav ascended to the
throne as Nassir-ud-din Khursrav Shah. His brief reign of four
month was enough to alienate the Alai nobles who under the leadership of Ghasi
Malik defeated and beheaded him in Delhi.
Ghiaz-ud-din
Tughluq: Since
there were no male descendants for Ala-ud-din, The nobles persuaded Malik to
sit on the throne under the name of Gias-ud-din Tughluq. He introduced many
reforms on all walks of life and administration. He crushed the rebellions in
Deccan and Bengal. In 1325 he died from the collapse of a wooden structure
built by his son Jauna.
Mohamed
Bin Tughluq: After
the death of Gias-ud-din, his son Jauna declared himself as the Sultan under
the name of Mohamed Bin Tughluq. During his reign, the boundaries of Delhi
Sultanate stretched from Peshwar in the north to Madurai in the south and Sind
in the west to Assam in the east.
Feroz
Shah Tughluq who
succeeded Mohamed Bin Tughluq was a weak personality and could not contain the
rebellions those broke out in the Sultanate. After the death of Feroz Tughluq,
civil wars broke out in the Sultanate. During Nasar-ud-din Mohamed
Tughluq's reign (1394-1412), the Mongol leader Timur invaded
India and captured Delhi. Mohamed came back to Delhi when Timur returned after
15 years. In 1414, Khizi Khan Sayyidoccupied the throne. He was
succeeded by the Lodis. Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of
Delhi. In 1526, Babur defeated him at the first battle of
Panipat and established the rule of Mughuls in India ending the Sultanate of
Delhi.
Mughal Empire
Babur: A descended on his father's
side from Timur and on his mother's side from Chingiz
Khan, Babur was the founder of Mughal empire in India. He defeated Ibrahim
Lodi in Panipat on April 1527 and occupied Delhi and Agra. He suppressed
Afghans in 1527. The Afghans of Bengal and Bihar were brought to their knees in
1529. When he died on 26th Dec.1530, his kingdom spread across
Oxus to Gorga and from Himalayas to Gwalior.
Humayun: Three days after the death of
Babur, his son Humayun ascended to the throne. He was a weak ruler and in-spite
of earlier success in his expeditions against the Afghans and the ruler of
Gujarat, Afghan Chief Sher Khan dethroned his in 1539 and placed himself in
Delhi as Sher Shah. Humayun returned to Delhi after 15 years with the help of
the ruler of Iran and recovered most of the territory he lost before his death
in Jan.1556.
Akbar was
the greatest of all Mughals. He was a man of culture and wisdom with a sense of
fairness. Unlike his predecessors he integrated Hindus into his empire and used
them as advisers and administers. His deep interest in religious matters made
him eventually to formulate a religion called 'Deen Ilahi', combining best
parts of all religions he had studied.
Jahangir: Akbar's son Salim succeeded him
after his death as Emperor Jahangir. Despite many challenges, his empire
remained more or less same as what Akbar had left behind. Jahangir preferred to
spend most of his time in Kashmir. He died in 1627 while returning to Kashmir.
Shahjahan: After the death of Jahangir,
his son Shahjahan succeeded him and secured his position by deposing all
possible contenders to the throne. Shahjahan ruled india from Agra. It is
during his reign that many monuments of the Mughal Era were built.
The
Decline of Mughals: The
empire was facing challenges from the Marathas and the British. The inflated
taxes and religious intolerance weakened the grip of Mughal Empire. The empire
stared disintegrating with the death of Aurangaseb in 1707. Within three
decades of Aurangaseb's death. the Mughal Empire was split into numerous
independent or semi-independent states. Nadirshah of Iran sacked Delhi in 1739
and exposed the fragility of the power of Mughals.
The empire
rapidly shrank in extent being reduced only a small district around Delhi.Yet
Mughal emperors ruled India until 1857.The imperial dynasty became extinct with
Bahadur Shah II who was deported to Rangoon by the British on suspision of
assisting the sepoy mutineers. He died there in 1862.
The Marathas
The rise of
the Maratha power played an important role in the second half of the 17th century.
In the Middle Ages, the Marathas upheld the national cause under the Yadavas of
Devagiri. But with the defeat of Ramachandradeva by Ala-ud-din Khalji, they
lost their independence. But in the 17th century they were
organised into a national state.
Shivaji: Shivaji was the hero of the
Maratha national movement. He was born in 1627 (or 1630) and his mother Jiji
Bhai groomed him by infusing high and inspiring ideas of heroism, spirituality
and chivalry into Shivaji's mind. In 1646 he captured the fortress of Torna.
Since then he raided, sacked acquired and annexed many forts and territories.
With cunning planning and shrewdness, he always outwitted his enemies and
opponents. In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself king at Rajgarh. He died on 14th April
1680 at the age of 53 (or 50).
Shivaji, a
born leader who could throw a spell over all who came in contact with him,
elevated himself by his unusual bravery and diplomacy. He brought together the
Maratha race that was scattered through many Deccani kingdoms. The Maratha
nation that he built up defied the Mughal Empire during and after Aurangaseb's
reign. It remained the dominant power in the 18thcentury. The
Maratha power competed with the English for supremacy in India until it was
finally crushed in the time of Lord Hastings.
The
Europeans-
India had
commercial relations with the west from time immemorial. By 7thcentury
AD, Arabs were dominating India's sea-borne trade. The geographical discoveries
of the late 15th century produced far-reaching consequences on
the trade relations of different countries.
The
Portuguese: The
discovery of a new route to India by Vasco da Gama who landed in Calicut on the
17th of May 1498 brought the merchants of Portugal to India.
Alfonso de Albuquerque came to India in 1503. He laid the foundation for
Portuguese power in India. When he died in 1515, Portuguese were left as the
strongest naval power in the west cost of India.
A number of
important settlements were gradually established near the sea by the successors
of Albuquerque. These were Diu, Daman, Salsette, Bassein, Chaul and Bombay,
Goa, San Thome near Madras, Hugli in Bengal and a major part of Ceylon. But
they lost their authority over the places due to many reasons except Goa, Daman
and Diu those they held until 1961.
The
Dutch: With a
view to getting direct access to the spice markets in the Southeast Asia, the
Dutch formed the Dutch East India Company in 1602. In 1605 they captured
Amboyna from the Portuguese. They conquered Jakarta in 1619 and captured
Malacca in 1641. They got possession of the last of Portuguese settlements in
Ceylon.
Commercial
interest drew Dutch to India as well. They established factories in Gujarat,
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and the Coromandal coast. But they confined themselves to
Malay Archipelago while the English, their trade rivals, concentrated in India.
The
English: The
completion of Drake's voyage around the world in 1580 and the victory over the
Spanish Armada encouraged some English sea captains to undertake voyages to the
eastern waters. A major step towards England's commercial prosperity was taken
up on 31st December 1600 by giving the monopoly over eastern
trades to The East India Company. They arrived early in the 17th century
and established trading posts along the coasts. In 1668 Bombay was transferred
to the company by Charles II, who got it from the Portuguese as part of the
dowry of his wife Catherine of Braganza, at an annual rental of ten Pound
Sterling. They have started factories in many places and many commercial
treaties were signed with local rulers. Thus the British made their presence
felt but entirely on commercial terms.
The
French: Though
the desire for eastern traffic was displayed itself at a very early period, the
French were the last to come to India. By 1668 the French established their
first factory at Surat followed by another at Machilipatnam in 1669. In 1673
the French obtained a small village from the Muslim Governor of Valikondapuram
and laid the foundation of Pondicherry.
The
European rivalry between the Dutch and the French adversely affected the French
in India. They gradually lost their influence and abandoned their factories at
Surat, Machilipatnam and Bantam. Later with turn of tide, they occupied
Mauritius in 1721, Mahe on the Malabar Coast in 1725 and Kariakal in 1739.
The
British Raj: The
rivalries developed among the European countries influenced the policies of
their counter parts in India. They allied with the local rulers for consolidating
their positions in India. Though initially commercial, they developed
territorial and political ambitions and manipulated local rivalries and
enmities to their advantages. The British were the ultimate winners in this
political manoeuvre
In the period
between 1740 and 1765, they steadily increased their influence politically,
militarily and commercially. They engaged the French in battles and ultimately
defeated them. Their victory over the Nawab of Bengal in 1757, in the battle of
Plassey established their supremacy in the east cost. In 1765 they concluded a
treaty with Bengal where the entire management of administration should be left
with a minister who would be nominated by the British and could not be
dismissed without their consent. This practically kept the control of
Administration in their hands while the Nawab remained merely a figurehead.
They gradually extended their rule over the entire subcontinent either by
direct annexation or acting as suzerain for local rulers.
Unlike
former rulers of India, the British continued its commercial activities
monopolising on all trades. India gave a major boost to the Industrial
Revolution by being the provider of cheap raw material and capital. India was a
large captive market for British Industry.
By the
middle of 19th century, the major part of the subcontinent was
under direct British rule while many local rulers were retained as subsidiaries
of the British Empire. This left them completely to the mercy of the Company
administratively and militarily. By 1757 India became the British Empire
achieved by unrestrained and unscrupulous methods employed by the British with
the only intention to expand the Empire by any means.
The
Freedom Movement
The rapid expansion of the British Empire and the means
employed to annex and expand, forced changes in the generations old,
well-accustomed life style of Indians and resulted in commotion in different
parts of the country. Many minor uprisings were recorded between 1816 and 1855.
The last and most severe was the revolt of 1857 -1859 in which many
grief-stricken princely rulers, landed aristocracy and peasantry rallied
against the British
The revolt
was the out come of changes in political, socio economical, religious and
military.The revolt shook up the mighty fabric of the British Empire to its
very foundations. The empire was able to resolve the mutiny in 1859. Even
though the revolt was not an organised National Movement or War of
Independence, it exposed the weakness of British Empire and changed the
political outlook in India. It also ended the East India Company rule in India
as the British Crown took over.
The
construction of a vast railway network to facilitate transport by the British
also brought the peoples of India in easy reach of each other and helped to
spread the idea of Indian unity. As it was impossible for a few foreigners to
administer a vast country like India, the British engaged the local elite to
help them. They set up an educational system to serve the purpose. But it also
helped the Indians to familiarise with the intellectual and social values of
the West. Ideas of democracy, individual freedom and equality gained momentum
among Indian thinkers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Bankim Chandra and Vidyasagar.
The leadership of freedom movement was passed on to this class and Indian
National Congress was formed in 1885.
Opposition
to British rule began to increase at the turn of the century. The Indian
National Congress began to push for a measure of participation in the
Government of the country. An unpopular attempt to partition Bengal in 1905
resulted in mass demonstrations against it. Launching of the Swedeshi Movement
brought the freedom movement to the common man by leaders like Bala Gangadhar
Tilak and Aurabindo Ghose. But Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the most charismatic
leader of the century, mobilised the people into an invincible force against
the British in the freedom struggle.
Mahatma Gandhi-
Back in
India, Gandhi became a leader in the struggle for home rule. He launched his
movement of passive resistance against the British gaining millions of
followers. A demonstration against Rowlett Acts, which gave sweeping powers to
the colonial authorities, resulted in a massacre of Indians in Amritsar by
British soldiers. When the British Government failed to amend the act, Gandhiji
proclaimed an organised campaign of non co-operation. People boycotted public
offices, government agencies schools etc. His 'swaraj' movement advocated the
boycott of British goods and revival of cottage industries. He lived a
spiritual and ascetic life of prayers, fasting and meditation and advocated
non-violence. Gandhi became the international symbol of free India. And people
called him 'Mahatma'.
In 1921
Indian National congress gave Gandhiji complete executive authority including
the power to nominate his successor. In 1922 he was again arrested and
imprisoned. After his release in 1924, Gandhiji withdrew from active politics
and concentrated on communal unity. But he was again drawn in the main stream
of freedom movement. In 1930 Gandhiji proclaimed a new campaign calling on the
Indian masses to refuse to pay tax for salt. In the campaign he marched to the
sea with thousands of followers and made salt by evaporating seawater in
defiance to the British. In 1931 he ceased the campaign after British heeded to
his demands. During his campaigns he fasted for long periods several times and
fast was an effective measure against the British.
By 1944 the
Indian struggle for independence reached its final stages. The British
Government had agreed to independence and initiated a number of constitutional
moves to effect the transfer of power. Because of various developements,
partitioning of the country was inevitable to achieve freedom. Mahatma was
against partitioning the country but he ultimately has to agree.
After the
partition, millions of people were forced to move to and from India and
Pakistan and communal riots errupted. Mahatma pleaded to the people to live in
communal harmony and fasted till the riots ceded. On January 30, 1948, as he
was on his way to his evening prayer meeting, a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse
assassinated him. Mahatma Gandhi was the most remarkable and charismatic leader
of the 20th century, perhaps in history.
Modern India
India achieved independence on August
15, 1947 and adopted the system of parliamentary democracy. India also remained
within the British Commonwealth Nations. India became a Republic on 26th January
1950. The Indian Constitution adopted safeguards to protect its entire people
from all forms of discrimination on grounds of caste, creed, race, religion, or
sex. It guarantees to all its Citizens freedom of speech and expression, the
right to assemble peacefully, freedom of conscience and worship, subject to
general consideration of public security and morality. Untouchability is
abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.
Indian Union
The
President is
the Head of State who is elected for five years by the members of an Electoral
College consisting of the elected members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabhs and the
Legislative Assemblies.
There is
also a Vice-President elected for five years by the members of
Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Indian
Parliament consists
of two houses, the Houses of people known as theLok Sabha and the
Council of States known as Rajya Sabha.
Lok Sabha
has 543 elected members representing the whole country. Members are elected
directly by the people through the universal adult franchise. The Lok Sabha
elects its own Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The Rajya
Sabha has 238 representatives of states who are elected by the elected members
of the Legislative Assembly of each State. Twelve members are nominated by the
President on the ground of having special knowledge in literature, science etc.
Vice-President is the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
There is
a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to
aid and advice the President. The President appoints the Prime Minister.
Normally the Prime Minister will be the leader of the majority Party in the Lok
Sabha. The President appoints other ministers on the advice of the Prime
Minster.
The Rajya
Sabha is not subjected to dissolution. But one-third of the members will retire
on expiration of every second year. The Lok Sabha unless dissolved will
continue for five years. Both the Houses should meet at least twice in every
year. Every legalisation requires the approval of both Houses.
The President's
assent is required before a Bill becomes law. He can withhold his assent and
return the bill with his suggestions. But if the Bill is passed again by both
Houses the President cannot withhold his accent.
Legislative
Assembly: Members
to the State Legislative Assembly or Vidhan Sabha are also
chosen by universal adult franchise. The Governor heads the
State Assembly and is appointed by the President. The Chief Minister,
the leader of the majority party, is the head of the State Government. The Governor
appoints other Ministers on Chief Minister's recommendation.
Elections
are conducted under the supervision of the Election Commission, an
autonomous body. An independent Judiciary is the guardian and interpreter of
the Constitution. Supreme Court is the highest tribunal in the
country while High Courts are for the States.
The Civil
Services execute Government policies fairly and freely. Service
executives are selected on merit by annual entrance examinations those are open
to all.
India
Today
Since Independence
India made considerable progress in agricultural productions and
industrialization. India is now one of the top 10 industrial powers in the
world. Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the country followed a policy
of non-alignment. India made long strides in development of space technology,
computer science and many other scientific and industrial fields.
No comments:
Post a Comment