01
HISTORY ONE OVERVIEW
ANICIENT PERIOD FROM 2300 to 1500 BC
VEDIC PERIOD FROM 1500 to 500BC
POST VEDIC PERIOD FROM 500 to 1st AD
MEDIEVAL PERIOD FROM 1st AD to 1200AD
MUSLIM INVASIONS AND RULE FROM 1200AD 1700 AD
ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS, FRENCH, PURTEGESE, ENGLISH
BRITISH RULE
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT
POST INDEPENENCE
02
GREAT INDIAN HERITAGE
ART, FOLK ART, DANCES, SONGS, FOLK SONGS, PAINTINGS,
SCULPTURE, CULTURE, DIFFERENT DRESSES,
LIFE STYLE, SETTLEMENTS, ARCHITECTURE, AND SPLENDOR
MYTHOLOGY, GODS, DIETIES, RAMAYANA,
MAHABHARTA, LANGUAGES, FAIRS, FESTIVALS, HOLI, DEWALI, DHANTERAS, ONEM, PONGAL,
NAVRATARA, NAVROZ, NEWYEAR, BAISAKHI.
3.
(SOURCE
OF ANCIENT HISTORY) 1. Material Remains
2. Coins 3. Inscriptions. 4 Literary Sources .5 Foreign Accounts (Written by visitors)
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION:
Spread over 1.3 million square kms. From Manda on the Chenab
near Jammu in the north to Diamabad on the Godavari, in Ahmednagar in the
south, and Stkagendor in Gujrat, in the West to Alamgirpur in Meerut in the
east- 1052 towns have been found so far.
This civilization belongs to Bronze Age. It is also called
Harappan Civilization, because most of Indus Sites have deep resemblance with
that of Harappa. This civilization existed between 2350 to 1750 B.C
Harappa was discovered during excavation in 1921.
It has shown the
evidence of coffin burial.
It was important centre of Boat Making.
It was urbanized centre, having palaces, citadels, copper
mirror.
These people knew jewel making, painting, and earthen
pottery.
In Mohenjo-Daro (Mound of Dead) great bath, great granary,
fire altars, uniform rectangular buildings, remarkable beautiful brick work and
multi pillared assembly hall are seen constructed. A temple site has also been identified, brick
grave of cotton pieces, one terracotta picture of a horse, seals, bulls, birds,
and other animals have been found, and bronze figure of a dancing girl and a
lime stone sculpture of a bearded head have been also found.
Certain excavations suggest agriculture cultivation of maze,
wheat, vegetables, chicken poultry, bead making etc.
Main Economy:
Agriculture:
Main crop was, Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Melon, Sesame,
Leguminous plants, Peas etc.
Cotton, was produced- chicken reared, they may have also
domesticated pigs, horses, camels, elephants.
Trade & Commerce:
Foreign trade existed with Mesopotamia Samaria (Iraq)
Bahrain.
Main imports were precious metals.
Exports:
Cotton finished goods, earthen pottery, Gems & Jewell.
Religion:
Chief deity was Pashupati
(Mahadeva) Mother Goddess was worshiped, sex organs phallus and vagina
were worshiped, which show their devotion towards fertility and preservation of
humans. They would worship fire also.
Towns had houses, temples, granaries, lamp posts, indicating
street lights, in grid pattern. Towns also had Planned Cities, drainage
public buildings, two storey houses, administrative buildings. Scripts could
not be deciphered. We don’t know much about the people.
Early Vedic Period:
1500-1000BC creators of this Vedic civilization are known as
Aryans. Settled in Sapata Sindhava, the Rig Veda era, area corresponds to east Afghanistan,
Punjab, and Western Uttarpradesh. Aryans
means “Pure”.
Aryans are believed to be semi-nomadic pastoral people, who
originally inhabitited the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. The Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of any
Indo European language.
Political Life:
These people lived in families and
family was known as Kula. The head of the family would be called Grihapati or
Kulapati.
Mostly people lived in villages
headed by a Gramini.
An aggregate of villages made one
district or clan, headed by Vispati. A
group of Visa or districts made a Jana ruled by a hereditary chieftain called
Rajan. The Rajan ruled over a Jana and not over a specified territory. Raja had
two assemblies, Saba, constituting tribal elders and General assembly,
constituting the entire clan or tribe. Rajan was by no means an autocrat. Raja
would protect the clan and clan would render obedience to Raja. Other important
officials were , Purohit (priest) Senani (Armes chief) Virajpati(in-charge of
pasture land)
SOCIETY:
Joint family with patriarchal system
prevailed. Monogamy was widely accepted. Although polygamy was not unknown and
even polyandry is mentioned in latter writings.
Society was divided in three groups.(
Varnas) 1 Warriors,2 priests,3 commoners, on the basis of occupation. By the
end of Rigvedic period fourth Varna Dssa or darks was added. Child marriage was common.
RELIGION:
Divine forces were worshiped. Indira,
war god, breaker of forts and thunder bolt storm. Agni,(Fire) Varuna, (ocean,
cloud, rivers) Dyaus( god of heaven) Surya (Sun) Ashvins( healer of diseases)
Maruti (storm and tornado) Pushan (protector of cattle) Savitri (god of light)
Yama (god of death) Goddess Diti ( mother of all Daitas) Aranyani (goddess of
forests) Ila (Goddess of cattle herds) Usha( Goddess of dawn) Aditi (Goddess of
eternity) offerings , prayers, hymns, sacrifices, Gods were worshiped for
material gains.
BOOKS:
Rigveda: book of shalokas, hymns, and
prayers of God. The famous Gayatri Mantra is also addressed to solar
deity, savitri is mentioned in the ten mandalas of
Rigveda.
Sama veda: book of melodies and
chants, deals with music.
Yajur veda: book of sacrifices, deals
with rituals formulae.
Atharva veda: book of magical and
technical formulae, deals with medicines, beliefs, cultural customs of Aryans,
Om word is mentioned 1028 times in Rig Veda , cows are considered most
important form of asset and wealth. Most wars were fought for cows.
Difference between pastoral and agrarian
society:
Agricultural, pastoral, and foraging societies all had one goal
in common: find food. Though, they went about
these different ways.
Agricultural or Agrarian societies are based on large-scale
agricultural production made possible by plows pulled by animals. Agrarian
societies are far more efficient than earlier societies and typically have a
huge food surplus. This supports a complex division of labor which leads to the
accumulation of great wealth by the few and considerable inequality.
Pastoral societies are societies in which animals are
domesticated and raised for food in pastures. Pastoral societies tended to
develop in arid regions where there was insufficient rainfall to raise crops on
the land. They were usually nomadic, moving on to a new area after the animals
had exhausted the food supply in each pasture.
Foraging societies, or commonly known
as Hunter-Gatherers, generally have a passive dependence on what the
environment contains. Because of this, the length of time that they stay in any
one location is largely determined by the availability of food and water that
is readily obtainable. They do not plant crops and the only domesticated
animals that they usually have are dogs.
The Epic Period or the post Vedic
Period: (1000 to 600 BC)
Ramayana & Mahabharata is an
epoch of transition from Tribal Kings to Kingdoms, from Rajas to Maharajas.
While as Ramayan is called the Sataya Yug (golden age), The society was family oriented living
amicably in a joint household. Mostly people lived on agriculture products and
agriculture allied trades.
This means that socio economic and
political conditions of this society were not as much complicated as these
happen to be sometime later. The mechanization process of tools and equipment
was not much developed and people lived purely an agrarian life. There was
almost no element of crookedness present in this society as we will see in the
lateral Dwaper,(Silver Age) Triata (Bronze Age) or now Kalyuga.(Iron Age) Up to
the Mahabharta period the Vedas had developed its branches in the form of
upaveda, Ayurveda,
UPVEDAS, Ayurveda,
……………Medicinal Knowledge(
Dhanurveda……………..Warfare
Gandharvaveda…………….Music and Art
Shilpaveda…………………Art of Literature and Art
VEDANGA: Shikha ………………………Pronouciation
Veyakrana ………………..Grammer
Nirukata----------------------etymology
Chandas--------------------------Metric
Jyotishpath…………………Astronomy
Kalkpas --------------------------Rituals
INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY:
Book…………………Writer
Naya………………..Gautama
Vaisheshika…………Karada
Sankhya………………Kalpa
Yoga ………………. .Patanjali
Purva
Memansa………Jaimini
Uttermimansa………..Badrayana
(Vedanta)
JAINISM: 6th
Century BC:
Buddhism took roots in India and was
widespread beyond India to China, Japan ,Myanmar, Vietnam, Srilanka, Thailand, Buddhism
was formed by Gautama Buddha who was born in 563 BC near Kapilvastu in Nepal.
His real name was Siddhartha and he was only son of his father King
Sadhudhanna, the name of his mother was Mahamaya and step Mother Gautami
Prajapati. His wife was Yashodhara and son Rahul. Young Gautama was so
disturbed by seeing the disease, death and old age of people around that he
thought it better to forsake the worldly pleasures and seek the ultimate truth
behind this world, where people are born, fall ill, get old and ultimately die.
The four great
truths revealed to his disciples after a great deal of meditation for years
together by the Buddha are:
1. The world is full of sorrows and misery
2. The cause of all pain is Desire
3. Pain and misery can be ended by controlling desire.
4. Desire can be controlled by fallowing Ashtang Marga (eight
fold path)
1. Right faith
2. Right thought
3. Right Action
4. Right means of livelihood
5. Right Extension of efforts
6. Right speech
7. Right remembrance
8. Right concentration & meditation.
JAINISM: 540-BC
Jainism was founded
by Rishabha as he is supposed to be ist Tirthankar succeeded by other 23. Vardhman Mahavir was 24th and
Parsavanath 23rd.
Jainism believes in
Anenktavad. The reality has many aspects and attributes. Knowledge is relative;
therefore there cannot be final affirmation or denial possible.
The Five principles
or Panch Anuvratas are:
1. Non violence
2. Truth
3. Commit no threat
4. Celibacy
5. Non-possession (Aparihgaha)
Two Jain
conferences at world level were held at Patliputra 300 BC and Vallabahi 512 AD.
The Maghada –Empire:
Mahapadma Nanda
344-to 322 BC founded big empire Maghada with Patliputra as its capital. Same
time around Alexendra (Sikander) (Alkhendra) invaded India. Alexender had come
from Greece conquering one after another country, till he had reached India.
Nanda was consumed in the vice of women and wine and had no concern about the
country being invaded by outside forces. At this occasion an intelligent
Brahmin Chankiya (Kautaliya) guided young and aspiring warrior Chandergupta
Mauriya, who overthrew Nanda and became King in 321 BC His kingdom lasted up to
184 BC.
Kautilya was thus Chanderguta’s Political guru and guide. His
Arthshastra provides a vital information about the Maurian system. Chandragupta
fought selucus Nictor in 305 BC, defeated him and a pact was signed with
Selucus. Megesthenes was ambassador of Selucus who negotiated peace.
MudraRakhshasa by Vishakahadatta was written around same period.
Kalapsutra by Bhadrabahu and Indica by Meghesthenes are
substantial writings written during this period. I his old age Chandergupta
turned to Jainism and became a monk. His Son Bindusar became King. Chandragupta
ruled for 24 years and extended his empire over large Area of Bharatvarsha.
BINDUSAR: (296-273) BC then Annexed South up to Mysore. His
son Ashoka the Great became a great emperor and after a great bloodshed of
Kalinga war, he fallowed the path of non-violence and was remembered as a very
loving king.
After Mauryas came Sungas, the Kanavas, Andhra, Satyaharas,
and the Sakas.
GUPTA AGE, the golden age of Hindus: Gupta age the golden
period of Indian History started from 320 AD to 550 AD , almost 230 Years of
peace and prosperity.
Sri Gupta was the founder of this golden age. But it was
Chandragupta first who started this era from 320 AD. This period in fact
brought great scholars and eminent people to fore. Kalidasa, Aryabhatta,
Varahamitra, and brahamgupta the great
mathematician, astronomers, poet and dramatists, Kumalila Bhatt and
Shankaracharya the great preachers of Hinduism and Dhanwantari, the great
physician, F-i-hian a Chinese pilgrim visited during Vikramaditiya’s reign. He gave
an excellent account of Gupta period.
Samudragupta never faced a defeat in battle field. Then, came
Chandragupta second. 375-AD to 415 AD. Kumargupta found Nalanda University in
415 AD. He ruled from 415 to 454 AD.
Post Gupta period only Harashavardhana in 606 AD proved to be a worth
mentioning King.
In 700 AD Arabs had started entering India through Sindh.
First Muslim attack on India in Sindh in the Year 715 AD was by Arab led by
Mohd. Bin Qasim. They displaced Raja Dhir, who ruled Sindh at that time. Arabs
tried to attack Malwa but failed. They could not face the resistance of Hindu
Kings. Raja Bhoj and other Gurjara Kings stopped them. It was only in 986 that
Turks from Khorasan came into conflict with Raja Jaipal of Bhatinda and in 991
defeated him.
Muhammad Ghaznai was elder son of turk Sabuktagin, who
invaded India umpteen times to loot wealth. He was a fanatic Muslim. He invaded
India 17 times between periods, 1001-1027. Jaipal and his son Ananpal offered
stiff resistance but were defeated.
Ghaznai invaded, Kangra, Thaneshwer, Kanauj, Kashmir and
Punjab. In 1025 AD he invaded Somnath temple and looted it killing thousands of
unarmed Brahimins of the temple. This temple was situated at the coastal
Saurashtra of Kathiawar. Enormous treasure of the fortified temple was looted.
His last invasion was in 1027 AD and he died in 1030.
Mohammad Ghori invaded Multan in about 1175-76 AD. In 1178 AD
he attempted to conquest Gujrat. He was given a crushing defeat by Bhramadeva
11nd, who him in 1191 AD. Mohammad Ghori met Prithviraj Chauhan in the battle
of Taraian. Ghori was severely wounded outnumbered and defeated. In 1192 AD
both armies met again at Taraian. This time Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated
killed and soon Ghori killed Jaichand also ,who did not support Prithviraj
Chauhan and thus helped Ghauri in defeating Chauhan. This defeat proved crucial
in establishing Muslim Sultanate in India. Till the time of Ghori Arabs and
Turks did not carry the intention of ruling this land.
While Arabs had started coming in 719 AD turks came to India
from 920 and remained in central focus until the arrival of Mughals from 1561
to 1757. Babar was the first Mughal Emperor who attained the throne of Delhi
from Lodhi dynasty and then last Mughal King was Bhadurshah Zafar.
During 8th and 10th centuries during which several
kingdoms struggled for supremacy. In Northern India, the three major kingdoms
were those of the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. Kingdoms or
principalities were established by the Rajput Dynasties of the Chauhans, Paramaras,
Gahadavalas, etc. In the South, it was the Cholas Dynasty that had control over
most of the peninsular part of the country. This situation of fragmentation of
political authority was greatly favorable for an invader like Mahmud of Ghazni.
After several successful conquests in Western and Central Asia, Mahmud turned
toward India. His Indian conquests began in 1000 AD, after which he made
repeated invasions over Punjab, as far as Kashmir and Eastern Rajasthan and
then into the fertile area of the Gangetic Plains. However, Mahmud was not
interested in establishing his rule over this country.
Political Events
Mahumud’s invasions were followed by the coming of the Turks.
The Turks established their rule over most of Northern India by the 13th
century. The Turkish rulers were known as Sultans and ruled from their capital
at Delhi. Their Empire is thus called the Delhi Sultanate. Its most powerful
dynasties were those of the Khaljis and the Tughluqs. Most of these rulers had
to face the threat of invasions by the Mongols. Meanwhile in the South, the two
powerful kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Bahmani were constantly competing with
each other for political supremacy. The coming of the Mughals in early 16th
century marked a new era in Indian History. Politically, it saw the
consolidation of an all India Empire on a scale that had not been witnessed in
India for a long time. Socially and culturally, this was a period
of fusion of various traditions. Out of this fusion was born
a unique tradition which could be seen in the social life, religious practices
and beliefs, and in the various arts. It was based on mutual acceptance and a
harmonious coexistence. Parallel to these centralized empires such as the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, there flourished several smaller regional and
provincial independent ruling dynasties. Some of these were the Ilyas Shahi and
Husain Shahi Dynasties of Bengal, the Ahoms of Assam, the Gajapati Dynasty of
Odisha, the Dynasties of Mewar and Marwar in Rajasthan and the Sharqi Dynasty
of Jaunpur. The reign of these independent regional dynasties witnessed the
growth of strong and flourishing regional and sub-regional languages,
literature and cultures.
Political Institutions
The coming of the Turks and the Mughals brought in new ideas
of sovereignty and governance. In the first place, kingship itself had no
clear-cut legitimate place in the Islamic conception of polity which was based
on the notion of a community of equals. Initially power was shared between the
Sultan and the powerful Turkish chiefs or nobles. But the reign of Balban saw
an elevation of the position of the Sultan, so much so that he assumed absolute
power in all matters of state and governance. The Medieval World power of the
Turkish nobility was considerably downsized. The Mughals established the power
and prestige of the king at an unprecedented level.
The Sultans of Delhi and the Mughal Emperors made some
innovations in the administrative system. The Mughal Emperor came to be
regarded as the Emperor of India. In the Delhi Sultanate, military commanders
were assigned territorial units known as iqtas. These territories were
transferable. The assignees of these iqtas were not given ownership of the land
but only control over the revenues collected from them. This revenue was to be
used by the iqtadar, that is, the assignee to meet his own requirements as well
as for the maintenance of his troops. He would then be expected to provide
military support with these troops whenever called upon by the emperor to do so.
However, the pre-existing structure of control over land and the hierarchy in
the landed system of the village continued largely undisturbed.
The Mughal system was more penetrative with control over the
revenue and landed network going much deeper right to the village level. The
Mughals appointed mansabdars who performed military and civil duties. The
mansabs were actually ranks of position which was fixed according to the
position of the officers in Mughal bureaucracy and the military contingents
under their command. These mansabdars were mostly paid through land assignments
called jagirs which were frequently transferable. These were similar to iqtas,
with the difference that while iqtas combined administrative charge, jagirs did
not. The Mughal system was crucially dependent on the smooth functioning of
Mansabdari and Jagirdari ystems.
2.4.3 Economy
The Delhi Sultanate as well as the Mughal Empire was based on
the surplus of agricultural produce of the peasants that was extracted in the
form of revenue. In the Mughal Empire, particularly in the reign of Akbar, far
reaching changes were made in the system of revenue collection. Land was
measured and land revenue was fixed according to the exact area of land.
Fertility of the land was also taken into account.
The cash value of the state’s share of the produce was then
calculated according to prevailing market prices and the revenue was fixed in
cash terms accordingly. The state encouraged payment of revenue in cash. This
was a period of commercialization of agriculture and the state encouraged cash
crop production. The state also took a lot of interest in the extension of
cultivation into zones which were hitherto uncultivated or forest areas. It
gave various incentives to pioneer agriculturists. The state also advanced to
peasants loans as well as revenue relief in times of crop failure.
Trade and commerce which had declined greatly following the
period of the Guptas saw a revival during this time. Urban centers flourished
after a considerable period of decline. Inland trade increased in the 13th and
14th centuries as a result of this new urbanization. A vast network of road
connecting these urban centers came up which also facilitated trade. Cities
like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Dhaka, Ahmadabad, Surat and Bombay rose in
importance. The merchandise from Punjab was sent to markets in West and Central
Asia. Political stability and relative peace established by the Mughals made it
possible to travel with considerable ease among the cities of the empire. Coastal
trade also flourished. There were a large number of trading classes and
commercial practices were of high standard and integrity. The seths, bohras and
modis were engaged in long-distance trade, while beoparis and baniks dealt in
local and retail trade, the sarafs or shroffs were money changers who issued
hundis or Bills of Exchange. The hundi was a letter of credit that could be
paid at a later date at the designated place. This facilitated the movement of
goods from one part of the country to another as it made the transaction of
money over long distance remarkably easy.
Cultural and Religious Life
In the sphere of religion and culture, the Medieval Period
witnessed a great synthesis of
traditions. The Bhakti Movement and Sufism in the religious sphere are examples
of this. The Bhakti Movement which stressed on oneness with god through
personal devotion came very close to the everyday lives of ordinary people. It
stressed on love, purity and devotion rather than rituals and sacrifices. It
questioned the caste system and the authority of Brahmans. Bhakti saints, like
Ramananda, Kabir, Ravidas, Mira Bai, Guru Nanak, Tukaram and Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu had a deep impact on the minds of the common people and this
influence continues even today.
In fact, some of these saints developed large following. For
example, Guru Nanak had deep influence over the people of Punjab. His large
following led him to found a new religion called Sikhism whose followers are
called Sikhs.
Kabir ke Dohe:
Dukh mein simran sab kare, Sukh mein kare na koye Jo sukh
mein simran kare, Tau dukh kahe ko hoye
(Translation) In anguish everyone prays to Him, in joy does
none To One who prays in happiness, how sorrow can come In a similar manner,
the Sufi saints also stressed on devotion and love as the only way to realize
the divine. They preached tolerance and compassion. They lived lives of
austerity and shared the sorrows and anxieties of the common masses. As a
result their influence over the masses, both Hindus and Muslims, was very strong.
There was also a lot of interaction between the Sufi and Bhakti saints and
exchange of philosophical idea took place. Both traditions in fact acted as a
bridge between the two communities.
Language, literature, art, architecture, music and dance also
bore out this trend of synthesis between different traditions. In the area of
language and literature, classical languages like Persian and Sanskrit
flourished. But, the real remarkable development was in the growth of regional
languages.
Under the Mughals, painting was organized in the royal
karkhanas and painters were on government payroll. The Mughal School of
painting represented a complete assimilation of the Persian and Indian styles.
This to some extent was a result of the fact that the artists of this school
brought with them elements of the various traditions to which they belonged
like Rajputana, Gujarat, Malwa, etc. Some famous painters were Daswant,
Basavan, Mukund and Kesav. The supervision of the Persian masters like Abdul
Samad and Sayyid Ali brought in an element of Persian style as well. Manuscript
Illustration was another hallmark of Mughal painting. Another fascinating
aspect of cultural life in Medieval India is visible in its Indo-Islamic
architecture. It is characterized by the adaptation of Indian resources,
expertise, motifs and designs to Persian styles. New features like the arch and
the dome were combined with the use of Hindu motifs like bell, lotus, swastika
and kalash/water pot. The Qutub Minar, the Allai Darwaza and various monuments
of the Tulghlaq Period like the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq are fine examples
of architecture during the Delhi Sultanate period. The monuments of the Mughal
Period reflect a deeper sense of fusion and assimilation of Indo-Islamic
styles. For example, the monuments in Fatehpur Sikri, like Panch Mahal,
Birbal’s Palace and Ibadat Khana, as well as the Tomb of Humayun in Delhi,
Akabar’s famous Tomb at Sikandra, Itmadudaulah’s Tomb in Agra and, of course,
the Taj Mahal are outstanding examples of Mughal architecture. Qutub Minar is one outstanding feature.
Music was also patronized by most medieval rulers in India.
Indian system of vocal and instrumental musical interfaced with Arab, Iranian
and Central Asian traditions of music. New ragas came to be composed. The
Bhakti and Sufi traditions also gave an impetus to new devotional styles of
music.
The Medieval Period of Indian history, quite distinct in its
characteristics of political economic and cultural life, was thus another
important outstanding period after the Ancient Period.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The Medieval Period cannot be called a Dark Period since so
many important developments and growth in various spheres of life took place in
different parts of the world. The most important institution of the society of
Europe in the Medieval Period was Feudalism. The feudal system comprised a
hierarchical of graded organization of political authority. An economic aspect
Feudalism was characterized by serfdom and the manorial system of production.
The feudal system was not a static one. It underwent patterns of prosperity and
crisis. The period before the 10th century of Europe was marked by low level of
cultural achievements. Cultural life improved, learning and intellectual
development began to flourish after the 10th century. It has simple doctrines.
.Islam spread to large parts of the world .Up to about 1500 AD, Islamic culture
and society was remarkably cosmopolitan and dynamic. It witnessed great strides
in cultural and scientific development.
The coming of the Turks and the Mughals brought new ideas of
sovereignty and governance to India. The iqta, jagirdari and mansabdari systems
were important administrative innovations. .The Medieval Period in India was a
period of economic growth. .The cultural and social life in Medieval India was
marked by a unique synthesis of different traditions.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain why the Medieval Period is a significant period
that needs to be studied
to understand the evolution of human society?
.
2. Examine the main features of Medieval Indian economy.
3. What were the important teachings of the Bhakti Movement
and Sufism? How
did acted as a bridge between the Hindus and the Muslims?
4. Illustrate how Medieval Indian culture represented a
harmonious synthesis of
traditions in the fields of arts, architecture and music.
ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS, FRENCH, PORTUGUESE, ENGLISH:
PORTUGUESE:
The coming of Portuguese dates to the event of landing of
VASCODEGAMA, a Portuguese sailor at the banks of Calicut on May 27, 1498.
Vascodegama was a sailor who discovered Sea Route to India. He came in search
of valuable Indian Spices, and conquered Goa in 1510 AD. Goa became political
and economic center of Portuguese.
DUTCH:
After Portuguese, Dutch came in 1595. The Dutch East Indian
Company was formed in 1602. Till 1690, Pulicat was their main centre,
afterwards they shifted to Nagapatanam.
In 1619 Mughal King Jahangir granted them permission to trade in the
territories of Surat, Gujrat and Hoogly in west Bengal In east coast.
THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:
This company was formed in 1600 AD through a charter, signed
by Queen Elizabeth, who granted it permission to trade in India. Captain
Hawkins paid visit to the court of Jahagir in 1608 but failed to secure trading
rights. In 1613, upon Sir Thomas Roes visit, English were permitted to
establish their factory at Surat (Gujrat).
THE FRENCH:
The French East India Company came to India in 1664 (Compaine
des Indes oriental) . It founded its enclave at Pondicherry.
The first Carnatic war between French and English ended with
a treaty in 1746. In second war of Carnatic (1748-54) French were defeated by
the British, slowly, French were totally routed by the British.
ROBORT CLIVE:
In battle of Plassey, (1757) Robert Clive led the company
forces against army of Bengali Siraj-ud-daula and defeated them with the help
of Mir Jafar. This Victory paved the way for the British Empire in India. This
was the first British acquisition of any Indian Territory.
The battle of Buxer, (1764) was fought by Nawab
Shuja-ud-duala of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam 11nd on the one side and
English forces led by Robert Clive on the other. Clive won the battle and
became first Governor of Bengal.
Black Hole Tragedy:
150 (approximately) English prisoners, held by Mughals were crowded into
a small chamber that had a small window on a hot summer night. Due to
suffocation and wounds several died.
Warren Hastings:
In 1772 Warren Hastings was appointed Governor of Bengal.
British Queen asserting her office over company limited its rule by an Act in
1773 up to 20 years and established its Supremacy.
A treaty named Saibai was signed between Nizam of Audh,
Haider Al, Warren Hastings and Marathas. English established Supreme Court at
Calcutta by Act of 1781. The power between Governor General in council and
Supreme Court was divided.
PITT’S INDIA ACT 1784, was passed, first Maratha war 1775-82
was fought. Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones in 1784.
In 1780 James Augustus Hicky started a weekly paper called Bengal Gazette; in
1784the Calcutta Gazette was published.
LORD CORNWALLIS introduced the permanent Revenue settlement
or Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar in 1786-1793 and allowed private trade
by company employees. The police system to be the father of Administrative
Services (Civil Services) established Sovereignty of Law, so that all the officers
were responsible to courts. District judges were appointed as the head of the
judiciary at the district level.
LORD WELLESELY (1798-1805) introduced several policies of
subsidiary alliances, starting first with Nizam of Hyderabad. Lord Wellesley
laid the foundation of Fort William College, passed regulation controlling
Press.
LORD WILLIAM BENTNCK was the last Governor of Bengal and
first Governor General of India. He introduced abolition of Sati Act in 1829,
Introduced English as medium of instruction, extended British Raj by Annexing
Agra, Mysore, and other States.
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856) came and extended British Raj by
annexing Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, Oudh, Burma, in it. He introduced Railway in
India. First train started from Thane to Mumbai in 1853. He introduced Public
Works Department also. Recruitment in civil services by open competitive
examination, widow re-marriage, educational reform and many other reforms were
introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
LORD CANNING (1856-1857) Revolt of 1857(Mutiny) happened
during this time. Meerut, Bihar, UP, Gwalior, Delhi came under the upsurge of
Mutiny. Immediately British took the reins in own hands, ended the mutiny and
ended the company rule and queen started directly ruling through Viceroy of
India. Lord Canning introduced Indian Penal Code (IPC). Indian Council Act of
1861 was passed by British Parliament for setting up legislative councils in
the provinces with Indians as members; the University of Calcutta and Bombay
were established.
LORD MAYO (1869-1872) Lord Mayo established Mayo College, at
Ajmer in Rajasthan, organized the Statistical Survey of India. He also
established Department of Agriculture and Commerce. He was killed by prisoner
in Andaman Jail.
LORD LYTTONS (1876-1880) held Delhi Durbar, moved capital
from Calcutta to Delhi. He imposed new Press Restrictions. The other Lords to fallow were Lord Ripon,
Lord Deuteron,
Lord Curzon, Lord Chelmsford, Lord Irwin and Lord Wavell,
Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy and the first Governor General of free
India.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT:
In 1885 A O Hume had formed Indian National Congress ,it held
its first session under the President-ship of Wyomesh Banerjee.
Congress had witnessed three phases, under the first phase
from 1885-1905, it consisted mostly of Moderates like Raja Rammohan Roy (the
founder of Brahmo Samaj (1828) and Swami Vivekanand (Arya Samaj) These were
basically social reformers and social activists of that time.
The second phase saw the extremist like Balgangadhar Tilak ,
who wanted freedom from the British Rule.
The Third phase came with the coming of M K Gandhi, who
believed in non violence and adapted satyagrah as one instrument of struggle against
British rule.
IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE ON
INDIA: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL (1757-1857)
Around the 18th Century a number of significant events took
place in the world. One such event was the Industrial Revolution which took
place in England. It gradually spread to other countries of Europe also. You
must have read about the Industrial Revolution that took place in England, and
also read about the discovery of new sea and trade routes. One such sea route
to India was discovered by a Portuguese called Vasco da Gama in 1498. As a
result, the English, French, Portuguese and the Dutch came to India for trade.
They also used it to spread missionary activities in India. Do you know that
the beginning of modern period in Indian history began with the coming of these
European powers to India? In this lesson you will be reading about the coming
of the British to India and the impact it had on the economic, social and
cultural spheres as well.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
Discuss the reasons for the British to come to India;
identify the various methods used by the British to colonize India; study the
economic impact during the British rule; describe the British impact on Indian
society and culture; and identify the reasons for the protest movements that
took place under their rule before the revolt of 1857.
5.1 REASONS FOR COMING TO INDIA
The European and the British traders initially came to India
for trading purposes. The Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the increase
in demand for raw materials for the factories there. At the same time, they
also required a market to sell their finished goods. India provided such a
platform to Britain to fulfill all their needs. The 18th century was a period
of internal power struggle in India and with the declining power of the Mughal
Empire, the British officials were provided with the perfect opportunity to
establish their hold over Indian Territory.
They did these through numerous wars, forced treaties,
annexations of and alliances with the various regional powers all over the
country. Their new administrative and economic policies helped them consolidate
their control over the country. Their land revenue policies help them keep the
poor farmers in check and get huge sums as revenues in return. They forced the
commercialisation of agriculture with the growing of various cash crops and the
raw materials for the industries in the Britain.
With the strong political
control, the British were able to monopolize the trade with India. They
defeated their foreign rivals in trade so that there could be no competition.
They monopolized the sale of all kinds of raw materials and bought these at low
prices whereas the Indian weavers had to buy them at exorbitant prices. Heavy
duties were imposed on Indian goods entering Britain so as to protect their own
industry. Various investments were made to improve the transport and
communication system in the country to facilitate the easy transfer of raw
materials from the farms to the port, and of finished goods from the ports to
the markets. Also, English education was introduced to create a class of
educated Indians who would assist the British in ruling the country and strengthen
their political authority. All these measures helped the British to establish,
consolidate and continue their rule over India.
METHODS OF COLONIZATION IN INDIA
Look at the map of Europe. You will find many big and small
states on it. When the industrial revolution started in Europe these small
states did not have sufficient raw materials for their industries, or markets
for their finished goods. These countries now started looking for markets in
Asia and Africa. England succeeded in controlling trade with India and
established the East India Company in 1600. This company was supported by the
British government. With its help England was able to extend her territorial
frontiers to the Indian subcontinent. The first factory was established at
Surat in 1613. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe got permission from the Mughal emperor
Jahangir to open more factories at Agra, Ahmadabad and Broach. Their most important
settlement on the southern coast was Madras where they built a fortified
factory called Fort St. George. This was the first proprietary holding acquired
by the company on Indian soil. Gradually the company expanded its trading
network. By that time the company was well established in India. It had also
succeeded in eliminating the other rival European powers from India. They also
started interfering in the political affairs of the Indian rulers.
In 1696, the company developed three villages into a city in
Bengal and named it Kolkotta. They also built a fort around this city known as
Fort William. Look at the map of the 19th century India. What do you see? You
will locate many big and small independent states. These states had their own
rulers, economy, language and culture. These states were constantly at war with
each other. It was not surprising that they fell an easy prey to the European
powers especially the British. It was the battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar
(1764) which provided the ground for the British success in India. Through
these battles, a long era of British political control over India began. The
Battle of Plassey was won by the English in Bengal. The British made Mir Jafar,
the new Nawab of Bengal, in return for which they receive an enormous sum of
money as well as the territory of 24 Parganas from the Nawab. But Mir Jafar was
not able to make further payments to them. As a result he was replaced by Mir
Qasim who proved to be a strong ruler. Mir Qasim was not ready to meet their
demands for more money or control. As a result, Mir Qasim was removed and Mir
Jafar was made the Nawab again. Mir Qasim then joined hands with the Nawab of
Awadh, Shiraj-ud-daula and the Mughal emperor Shah Allam Impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social
and Cultural (1757-1857)
II in plotting against the British, the battle took place at
a place called Buxar on 22 October 1764. Their defeat proved to be decisive.
Though the British successfully gained control over Bengal, the imposition of
British rule throughout India was not an easy task. A number of regional powers
opposed them and tried to resist the efforts of territorial expansion of the
British. Let us read about the various wars waged by the British against the
Indian states.
(i) Anglo-mysore Wars
Mysore emerged as a powerful state under an able leadership
of Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the second half of the eighteenth
century. Four wars took place between Mysore and the British. Finally the
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) ended in the heroic defeat and death of Tipu
Sultan. With this a glorious chapter of struggle between Mysore and the English
came to an end. Large ports like Kanara, Coimbatore and Seringapatam were
secured by the British.
Tipu Sultan
(ii) Anglo-maratha Wars
The Marathas were another formidable power in western and
central India during the second half of the eighteenth century. But the
struggle for power among themselves gave the British an opportunity to
intervene in their internal matters. Many wars took place between the British
and the Marathas mainly on account of the Subsidiary Alliance (which you will
read in 5.2.1). The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) was the last war between
them. The English defeated the Peshwa, dethroned him and annexed all his
territories. The Peshwa was pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur, Uttar
Pradesh.
Anglo-sikh Wars
In north-west India, the Sikhs under their able leader
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (17921839)
became an effective political and military force. The British
power in India Impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social and Cultural
(1757-1857) viewed the rise of the Sikhs as a potential threat. The British
thus wanted to bring the Sikhs under control. After the death of Ranjit Singh
in 1839, lawlessness prevailed in Punjab. The British took advantage of this
and the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1845 which ended with the defeat of
the Sikhs. In the Second Anglo-Sikh
War in 1849, the British finally defeated them in the battle
of Gujarat, a town on river Chenab (1849). The Sikh chiefs surrendered and
Punjab was annexed by Lord Dalhousie. Maharaja Dalip Singh, the son of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh was pensioned off and sent to England.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Other Conquests,
System of Alliances and Annexations The Third Battle of Panipat against the
Marathas in 1761 had already provided the stage for the success of British in
India. Soon many more native states came under British control. This was done by
a system of alliances called the Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance.
Doctrine of Lapse led to a number of independent kingdoms being annexed to the
British Empire. These were the states that were enjoying British
protection but their rulers had died without leaving a
natural heir to the throne. Their adopted sons could now no longer inherit the
property or the pension which was granted to them by the British. In this way
Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States impact of British Rule on India: Economic,
Social and Cultural (1757-1857) of Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur
(1852), Nagpur (1853), Jhansi (1854) and Awadh (1856). In Subsidiary Alliance,
the Indian States that were under British protection had to suspend their
armies and instead maintain British troops. They also surrendered their control
on their foreign affair and let go of their right to make alliances with other
foreign states for any purpose, economic or political. In return, they were
given protection by the British from their rivals. The policy of annexation
affected not only the Indian rulers, but all those who were dependent upon them
such as soldiers, crafts people and even nobles. Even the traditional scholarly
and priestly classes lost their patronage from these rulers, chieftains, nobles
and zamindars, and were thus impoverished. Thus, by the mid-nineteenth
century,no single Indian power was there to challenge or resist the British.
Assam, Arakhan, North Eastern region and portions of Nepal
and Burma were already annexed (1818 to 1826). The British also occupied Sind
in 1843. Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
Imagine you are 15 years old and the nephew/niece of a ruler of a princely
state in 19th century India. Your uncle has no child of his own, so you are
made the heir to the throne. What steps would you take if the British imposed
Doctrine of Lapse in your kingdom and didn’t allow you to succeed after your
uncle? Impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social and Cultural
(1757-1857) Impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social and Cultural
(1757-1857)
ECONOMIC IMPACT
The Industrial revolution has helped the English merchants
accumulate a lot of capital from the countries of Asia, Africa and America.
They now wanted to invest this wealth in setting up industries and trade with
India. The mass production of goods through machines that we witness today was
pioneered through the Industrial Revolution which occurred first in England
during the late 18th and the early 19th century. This led to a massive increase
in the output of finished products. The East India Company helped in financing
and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of
manufacturers in England who benefited more from manufacturing than trading.
They were interested in having more raw materials from India as well as sending
their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers
launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the privileges
it enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s
monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of
Industrial England. Let us learn more about the economic impact on various
Indian industries and trade.
Textile Industry and
Trade
Earlier, Indian hand-loom had a big market in Europe. Indian
textiles such as cotton, linen, silk and woolen goods already had markets in
Asia and Africa. With the coming of industrialization in England, the textile
industry there made important headway. There was now a reverse of the direction
of textile trade between Britain and India. There was a massive import of
machine made clothes from English factories to Indian markets. This import of
large amount of products manufactured by mechanical looms in England led to
increase threat for the handicraft industries as the British goods were sold at
a much cheaper price.
The British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price
as foreign goods were given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the
other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they were sent out of
the country. Besides, under the pressure of its industrialists, British
government often imposed a protective tariff on Impact of British Rule on
India: Economic, Social and Cultural (1757-1857) Indian textiles. Therefore,
within a few years, India from being an exporter of clothes became an exporter
of raw cotton and an importer of British clothes. This reversal made a huge
impact on the Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its virtual collapse.
It also created unemployment for a large community of weavers. Many of them
migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as agricultural laborers. This
in turn put increased pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This
process of uneven competition faced by the Indian handloom industry was later
dubbed by the Indian nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.
Duty: Taxes which are paid to the government on goods that
are bought or sold. Tax: A sum of money demanded by a government for its
support for specific facilities or services, levied upon incomes, property,
sales. Tariff: An official list or table showing the duties or custom imposed
by a government on imports or exports.
The main aim of the British was to transform India into a
consumer of British goods. As a result, textile, metal work, glass and paper
industries were soon out of work. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both
their domestic as well as foreign market. Indian goods could not compete with
the British factory-made products where machines were used. These markets were
now captured and monopolized by Britain by means of war and colonisation. From
an exporter India became an importer of these goods. They extracted money from
the Indian rulers, merchants, zamindars and even the common people. Added to
this drain were the profit made through trade and also the salaries of the
officials. It was evident that their economic policies were meant to serve the
interests of the East India Company and later the British Empire. Case-Study of
Behriyar-Gareriya nomads:
This community of 75 sheep wool weavers’ in Jharkhand from
the Gaya district in Bihar has almost given up weaving blanket due to lack of
funds as reported in the news (The Sunday Tribune-Spectrum, March 11, 2012).
One weaver says, ‘we cannot compete with the blankets being sold in the
markets’. Another says, ‘we are forced to sell our products in villages because
of limited access to urban markets’. Compare the situation of the weavers in
British India and in the present times. Is it same or different? What steps
would you suggest to improve their conditions?
Land Revenue Policy
and Land Settlements Since ancient times, the main source of livelihood for the
people were agriculture. Hence, land tax had formed a principal source of revenue
for all the emperors all over the world. In the 18th century, the main occupation
of the Indian people was agriculture. During British rule, revenue from land
kept on increasing, and the reasons for this were many. Earlier the British had
come to trade with India. Gradually they wanted to conquer the vast territory
of India for which they needed a lot of money. They also needed money for
trade, projects of the company as well as for the cost of running the
administration. The British carried out a number of land revenue experiments
which caused hardship to cultivators. They extracted taxes from the farmers to
finance their policies and war efforts. Direct and indirect means were carried
out to bring about this collection of revenue for the British. This affected
the lives of the people who could not meet their daily needs because they had
to provide the landowners and the collectors their share in the produce. Local
administration failed to provide relief and natural justice to the rural poor.
Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal
and Bihar in 1793. It made the landlord or zamindar deposit a fixed amount of
money in the state treasury. In return they were recognised as hereditary
owners of land. This made the zamindar the owner of the land. The amount of
revenue to be paid to the Company was fixed for a period of time which made the
British financially secured. Now they knew in advance as to how much revenue
was coming in form the State. The zamindar also knew how much revenue was to be
paid. So to get surplus revenue for themselves they asked the peasants to
increase production. But, if the zamindar failed to pay the fixed revenue on
time his land was sold off to another zamindar. The British stood to benefit
from this settlement as the new class of zamindars that emerged became their
political allies. They supported the British in times of need and acted as a
buffer between them and the peasants. This class, in fact, supported the
British against the freedom movement. In 1822, the British introduced the
Mahalwari Settlement in the North Western Provinces, Punjab, the Ganga Valley
and parts of Central India. Here the basis of assessment was the product of a
mahal or estate, which may be a village or a group of villages. Here all the proprietors
of mahal were jointly responsible for paying the sum of revenue assessed by the
government. Unfortunately it brought no benefit to the peasants as the British
demands were very high. The Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in the beginning
of the 19th century in many parts of Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Here the
land revenue was imposed directly on the ryots, the individual cultivators, who
actually worked on the land. The peasant was recognized as the owner of the
land as long as he was able to pay the revenue but the exploitation continued
with the high revenue demands.
impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social and
Cultural (1757-1857)
Commercialisation of
Agriculture Another major economic impact of the British policies in India was
the introduction of a large number of commercial crops such as tea, coffee,
indigo, opium, cotton, jute, sugarcane and oilseed. Different kinds of commercial
crops were introduced with different intentions. Indian opium was used to
balance the trade of Chinese tea with Britain in the latter’s favor. The market
for opium was strictly controlled by British traders which did not leave much
scope for Indian producers to reap profit. Indians were forced to produce
indigo and sell it on the conditions dictated by the Britishers. Indigo was
sent to England and used as a dyeing agent for cloth produced in British towns.
Indigo was grown under a different system where all farmers were compelled to
grow it on 3/20th part of their land. Unfortunately cultivation of Indigo left
the land infertile for some years. This made the farmers reluctant to grow it.
In the tea plantations ownership changed hands quite often. The workers on
these plantations worked under a lot of hardships.
Commercialisation of agriculture further enhanced the speed
of transfer of ownership of land thereby increasing the number of landless
laborers. It also brought in a large number of merchants, traders and middlemen
who further exploited the situation. The peasant now depended on them to sell
their produce during harvest time. Because the peasants now shifted to
commercial crops, food grain production went down. So, less food stock led to
famines. It was therefore not surprising that the peasants revolted. You would
read about it in detail in the coming chapters. There was an enormous drain of
wealth from our country to Britain due to the various economic policies.
Additional financial burden was placed on India due to expenditures on
salaries, pensions and training of military and civilian staffs employed by the
British to rule India. If this wealth was invested in India it could have
helped enormously Improved the economy in this country. Let us learn how the
economic policies implemented by the British changed the social structure of
Indian society.
Rise of the New
Money-lending Class
Time bound and excessive demand of revenue by the British
government forced the peasants to take loans from the moneylenders. These
moneylenders often exploited the peasants by charging high interest rates. They
often used unfair means like false accounting, forged signatures and thumb
impressions. The new legal system and the policy introduced by the British only
helped the moneylenders who were either local merchants or landlords. In most
cases, the peasants failed to pay back the loan with full interest. Thus, their
lands gradually passed into the hands of the money-lending class.
Rise of the New Middle
Class
A major impact of the British rule in India was the beginning
of a new middle class. With the rise of the British commercial interests, new
opportunities opened to a small Impact of British Rule on India: Economic,
Social and Cultural (1757-1857) section of the Indian people. They often acted
as the agents and intermediaries of the British traders and thus made huge
fortunes. The new landed aristocracy, which came into being after the
introduction of Permanent Settlement, also formed a part of this new class. A
major section of the old landowning aristocracy lost ownership of their land
and in many cases were replaced by a new class of land owners. These people got
some English education and became the new elite. With the spread of British
power, new job opportunities were also created. Indian society witnessed the
introduction of new law courts, government officials and commercial agencies.
The English educated people naturally got the necessary patronage from their
colonial rulers. Thus, a new professional and service-holding middle class was
also created by the British, apart from those with landed interests.
Transport and
Communication
The means of transport in India at that time were bullock
carts, camels and pack animals. England on the other hand needed railways that
connected the raw material producing areas with the exporting ports and to
facilitate the movement of British goods to different parts of the country as
well as bring raw materials to the ports. The vast network of railways that you
witness today was pioneered during the latter half of the 19th century. This
opened avenue for British bankers and investors to invest surplus wealth and
material in the construction of railways. Railways benefited the British
capitalists in two important ways. First, it made trading in commodities much
easier and profitable by connecting the internal markets with the ports.
Secondly, the rail engines, coaches and the capital input for building of rail
lines came from Britain. The British capitalists who invested in railways were
also guaranteed a minimum profit of 5% by the government.
These companies were also given free land with a lease of 99
years. Although the railways were set up for the advantage of British trade,
they also played an important role in the national awakening of the country.
Though the British had never anticipated the extensive transport network and
improved education brought people and ideas closer. During British rule, India
took ideas of liberty, equality, human rights, science and technology from the
West. This accelerated the process of modernization Now we will read about the
impact of modern idea on Indian society.
The first railway line was the Red Hill Railroad line,
Madras. It opened in 1837 and was use for the carriage of granite stone. While
the first passenger railway line ran from Bombay to Thane in 1853. The same
year Dalhousie opened the first telegraphic line from Calcutta to Agra and also
introduced the postal service to India.
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