INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
In the last few lessons, you have been reading about the
history of our civilization
starting from the Pre-historic Age till the modern period.
You have travelled down
to this lesson on India’s Freedom Movement. Don’t you think
it was a very interesting journey? You read how people lived in jungles, used
crude stones to protect themselves, and got food by killing animals. You also
read about the Bronze Age when metals were discovered and were used for cutting
down small forests and also how its use made life more comfortable. This led us
to the Iron Age and the beginning of Industrialization. You read how as society
grew, some people became more powerful than the others. You also read how money
and land became a source of greed for powerful nations. This led to protest and
resistance against states and nations who tried to control the others by
exploiting the natural and human resources and by ruling over them ruthlessly.
One of these states happened to be our own county India. You shall read about
India’s long struggle for freedom in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Identify the causes that led the rise of Nationalism in India
trace the emergence of Indian National Congress
discuss the various stages of the National Movement in India list the names of prominent leaders of the
Indian National Movement discuss the role of Gandhi in this Movement
8.1 ORIGIN OF NATIONALISM
The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of
Renaissance in Europe when
freedom from religious restrictions led to the enhancement of
national identity. This expression of Nationalism was furthered by the French
Revolution. The political Indian National Movement changes resulted in the
passing of sovereignty from the hands of an absolute monarch to the French
citizens, who had the power to constitute the nation and shape its destiny. The
watchwords of the French Revolution -Liberty, Equality and Fraternity -
inspired the whole world. Many other revolutions like the American Revolution,
the Russian Revolution, etc. also strengthened the idea of Nationalism. In this lesson, you will read about
the rise of Nationalism in India which emerged in the 19th Century after the
revolt of 1857.
Rise of Nationalism in
India
For India, the making of national identity was a long process
whose roots can be drawn from the ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled
by emperors like Ashoka and Samudragupta in ancient times and Akbar to
Aurangzeb in Medieval times. But, it was only in the 19th Century that the
concept of a national identity and national consciousness emerged. This growth
was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement about which you have
already read in lesson 4. The social, economic and political factors had
inspired the people to define and achieve their national identity.
People began discovering their unity in the process of their
struggle against colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule
provided a shared bond that tied different groups together. Each class and
group felt the effects of colonialism differently. Their experiences were
varied, and their notions of freedom were not always the same. Several other
causes also contributed towards the rise and growth of Nationalism. One set of
laws of British Government across several regions led to political and
administrative unity. This strengthened the concept of citizenship and one
nation among Indians. Do you remember reading the lesson Popular Resistance
Movements? Do you remember the way the peasants and the tribals rebelled when
their lands and their right to livelihood was taken away? Similarly this
economic exploitation by the British agitated other people to unite and react
against British Government’s control over their lives and resources. The social
and religious reform movements of the 19th century also contributed to the
feeling of Nationalism. Do you remember reading about Swami Vivekananda, Annie
Besant, Henry Derozio and many others? They revived the glory of ancient India,
created faith among the people in their religion and culture and thus gave the
message of love for their motherland.
The intellectual and spiritual side of Nationalism was voiced
by persons like Bankim Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and
Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became
the rallying cry of patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations to supreme
self-sacrifice. Simultaneously, it created a fear in the minds of the British.
The impact was so strong that the British had to ban the song. Similarly, Swami
Vivekananda’s message to the people, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal
is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted as a potent force in the course
of Indian Nationalism.
Indian National Movement
Do you also remember reading about the establishment of
printing press and how, it helped in wide circulation of ideas like liberty,
equality and fraternity? All these factors helped in the spread of Nationalism
among the people of India. Around this time many organizations were being
formed which raised their voices against British rule. Most of these
organizations were regional in nature. Some of these organizations were very
active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal Presidency Association, Pune
Public Meeting, etc. However it was felt that if these regional organizations
could work jointly it would help the Indian masses to raise their voices
against the British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian National Congress
in the year 1885. We will discuss about this in the next section of this
lesson.
EMERGENCE OF INDIAN
NATIONAL CONGRESS
(1885)
The Indian National Congress was founded by Allan Octavian
Hume in 1885. Hume was a retired Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing
political consciousness among the Indians and wanted to give it a safe,
constitutional outlet so that their resentment would not develop into popular
agitation against the British rule in India. He was supported in this scheme by
the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, and by a group of eminent Indians. Womesh Chandra
Banerjee of Calcutta was elected as the first President.
The Indian National Congress represented an urge of the
politically conscious Indians to set up a national organization to work for
their betterment. Its leaders had complete faith in the British Government and
in its sense of justice. They believed that if they would place their
grievances before the government reasonably, the British would certainly try to
rectify them. Among the liberal leaders, the most prominent were Firoz Shah
Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Ras Behari Bose, Badruddin
Tayabji, etc. From 1885 to 1905, the Indian National Congress had a very narrow
social base. Its influence was confined to the urban educated Indians.
Indian National
Congress (Session 1885)
Indian National Movement
The early aims of this organization were limited only to
communicate with British
government on behalf of the Indian people and voice their
grievances. It was rightly called the era of the Moderates. You will soon find
out why?
Initial stages of
Indian National Congress The congress placed its demands before the government
always in the form of petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was
for this reason that the early Congress leaders were referred to as
‘Moderates’. During its first twenty years the Congress made moderate demands.
The members placed their demands before the Government always in the form of
petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that
the early Congress leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’ They asked for: (a)
representative legislatures, (b) Indianization of services, (c) reduction of
military expenditure, (d) education, employment and holding of the ICS (Indian
Civil Services) examination in India, (e) decrease in the burden of the
cultivators, (f) defense of civil rights, (g) separation of the judiciary from
the executive, (h) change in the tenancy laws, (i) reduction in land revenue
and salt duty,(j) policies to help in the growth of Indian industries and
handicrafts, (k) introduction of welfare programmes for the people.
Unfortunately, their efforts did not bring many changes in the policies and
administration of the British in India. In the beginning, the Britishers had a
favourable attitude towards the Congress. But, by 1887, this attitude began to
change. They did not fulfill the demands of the Moderates. The only achievement
of the Congress was the enactment of the Indian Councils Act, 1892 that
enlarged the legislature by adding a few non official members and passing of a
resolution for holding Indian Civil Services Examination simultaneously in
London and in India. Many leaders gradually lost faith in the Constitutional
process. Even though the Congress failed to achieve its goal, it succeeded in
creating national awakening and instilling in the minds of the Indian people a
sense of belonging to one Nation. They provided a forum for the Indians to discuss
major national issues. By criticizing the government policies, they gave the
people valuable political training. Though, They were not ready to take
aggressive steps which would bring them in direct conflict with the Government.
The most significant achievement was the foundation of a strong national
movement.
The Britishers who were earlier supporting the Moderates soon
realized that the movement could turn into a National force that would drive
them out of the country. This totally changed their attitude. They passed
strict laws to control education and curb the press. Minor concessions were
given so as to win over some Congress leaders. The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon
was a staunch imperialist and believed in the superiority of the English
people. He passed an Act in 1898, making it an offence to provoke people
against the British rulers. He passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904,
imposing stiff control over Indian Universities. Curzon was out to suppress the
rising Nationalism in India. This was evident from what he did in 1905 about which
you will read in the next section.
PARTITION OF BENGAL
(1905)
What do you think happened in1905? Curzon announced the
partition of Bengal. The reason for partition was given as an attempt to
improve administration. But the real aim was to ‘Divide and Rule’. The
partition was done in order to create a separate State for Muslims and so
introduce the poison of communalism in the country. However the Indians viewed
the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national
movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region. Widespread
agitation ensued in the streets and in the press. People of different parts of
India opposed the partition of Bengal all over the country. This opposition was
carried on by organized meetings, processions and demonstrations etc. Hindus
and Muslims tied ‘rakhi’ on each other’s hands to show their unity and their
protest.
(Do you know what ‘rakhi’ is? Write a paragragraph on it.
Connect it with the Indian festival of Raksha Bandhan.) The use of Swadeshi
(made in our own country by our own people) goods, business, national education
and Indian languages were encouraged. The new nationalist spirit of self
reliance- shed the fear of repression including imprisonment and painful
torture by the British rule. It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who realized the
importance of boycott as a weapon that could be used to paralyze the whole
British administrative machinery in India. The boycott and Swadeshi movements
were instrumental in the establishment of swadeshi enterprises - textile mills,
banks, hosiery, tanneries, chemical works and insurance companies. Swadeshi
stores were opened. Volunteers supplied goods at the doorstep of every
household. The movement spread to all classes and groups of people. Everyone, including
women and children, came forward to take part. The most active were school and
college students. This made the British reverse the partition of Bengal and
unite it in 1911. During this time, the role of Radical Nationalists in the
Indian National Congress, who were called the ‘Garam Dal’, came to be
appreciated. They tried to involve people from all classes and groups including
peasants, worker, students as well as women. They succeeded in uniting the
Indian people against the common enemy - the British. The young people were roused
to the highest level of patriotism and zeal to free their country. They helped
in making people self confident and self reliant. They also revived the Indian
Cottage industry.
THE RISE OF RADICAL
NATIONALISTS
The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress led to the
rise of passionate, radical nationalists, who came to be called the ‘Garam
Dal’. Thus the first phase of the nationalist movement came to an end with
government reaction against the Congress on the one hand and a split in the
Congress in 1907 on the other. That is why the period after 1905 till 1918 can
be referred to as the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists or Garam Dal’. Lala
Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) were important
leaders of this Radical group. When the Moderates were in the forefront of the
action, they had maintained a low profile but now they swung into action. Their
entry marked the beginning of a new trend and a new face in India’s struggle
for freedom. According to them, the Moderates had failed to define India’s
political goals and the methods adopted by them were mild and ineffective.
Besides, the Moderates remained confined to the upper, landed
class and failed to enlist mass support as a basis for negotiating with the
British. Lal-Bal-Pal The Garam Dal
realized that the British were out to exploit Indians, destroy their
self-sufficiency and drain India of its wealth. They felt that Indians should
now becomefree of foreign rule and govern themselves. This group, instead of
making petitions to the government, believed in organizing mass protests,
criticizing government policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of Swadeshi
(home-made) goods etc.
They did not believe in depending on the mercy of the Britishers,
but believed that freedom was their right. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave a slogan
‘Freedom is our birth right and we must have it’. In 1916 the two groups were
again united with the efforts of Mrs. Annie Besant. Do you remember reading
about her in an earlier lesson? She started working for the Home rule movement
in 1914. She was convinced that India should be granted Self-Government. In
1916, Muslim League and Congress also came to an understanding with each other
and signed the Lucknow Pact. Later, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash
Chandra Bose became the eminent figures of Indian National Congress, who led
the freedom movement of India forward.
Prepare a time line of the events of the history of Indian
National Congress from its establishment to Independence. Collect photographs
related to it and arrange them on this chart.
FORMATION OF THE
MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
As the radical movement grew stronger the British began to
look for ways and means to break the unity among Indian. They tried to do this
through the partition of Bengal and by sowing the seed of communalism among
Indian people. They motivated Muslims to form a permanent political association
of their own. In December, 1906, during the Muhammadan Educational conference
in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea of establishing a Central
Muhammadan Association to take care of Muslim interests. Accordingly, on 30th
December, 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded. Another prominent
person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The main objective of the league
was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and represent their
needs to the government. By encouraging the issue of separate electorates, the
government sowed the seed of communalism and separatism among Indians. The
formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the
British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined
the League.
MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS
(1909)
Do you remember reading about the Indian Councils Act 1892,
which enlarged the legislature by adding members to the Central Legislative
Assembly? The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of the 1892 reforms, also
known as the Morley-Minto Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of
State (Lord Morley) and the then Viceroy (Lord Minto). It increased the members
of the Legislative Assembly from sixteen to sixty. A few non-elected members
were also added. Though the members of the Legislative Council were increased,
they had no real powers. They remained mainly advisory in character. They could
not stop any bills from being passed. Nor did they have any power over the
budget.
The British made another calculated move to sow the seed of
communalism in Indian politics by introducing separate electorates for the
Muslims. This meant that from the constituencies dominated by Muslims only
Muslim candidates could be elected.
Hindus could only vote for Hindus, and Muslims could only
vote for Muslims. Many leaders protested against this communal electorate
policy of the British to ‘Divide and Rule’.
THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT
DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The First World War started in the year of 1914, This War was fought among the nations of
Europe to get colonial monopoly. During war time, the British Government made
an appeal to the Indian leaders to join hands with them in their time of
crisis. Indian leaders agreed but they put their own terms and conditions i.e.
after the war was over, the British government would give Constitutional
(legislative and administrative) powers to the Indian People. Unfortunately,
the steps taken by the British government during the World War I created unrest
among the Indian people. This was because the British government had taken a huge
loan during war time which they had to repay. They increased rent from the
land, i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the British Army. They
increased the price of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal and
professional income. As a result, they had to face protest from the Indian
society.
Farmers and workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and
Ahmedabad actively protested against the exploitative policies of British
government. Lakhs of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers
gave up their practice. Women also significantly contributed in this movement
and their participation became wider with the emergence of Gandhi. The boycott
of foreign cloth became a mass movement, with thousands of bonfires of foreign
cloth lighting the Indian sky.
Media played a very significant role in the success of Indian
National Movement. Find out the names of some prominent newspapers of that
time. Also the kinds of media publicity used during that time. Write a
report. Coming together of Naram Dal and
Garam Dal During the war time, The Naram Dal and Garam Dal came together in
1916 at Lucknow Congress session. The Muslim League and the Congress agreed to
separate electorates and decided to give weightage to the other party wherever
they were in minority. Both Congress and Muslim League jointly demanded self government
which could no longer be ignored by the Government. The Lucknow session was
also significant as the radical leaders of the Congress were attending it after
the split in 1907. It brought Tilak into prominence and he remained an active
member in the Movement till his death in 1920. The pact which took place
between the Congress and Muslim League aroused great hopes and aspirations in
the country.
Simultaneously, the work done by the Home rule movement
infused confidence and determination among the people. In order to pacify the
Indians, the Montague-Chelmsford Reform came in 1919. It introduced Dyarchy -
which was a kind of double government in the provinces. The provisional government
was to be divided into two parts - one to be responsible to the Indian
Electorate through the Legislature, and other to the Governor. The report also
laid stress on the Indianization of the services.
In the First World War, Britain and its allied groups won the
war. During the War, Muslims supported the government with an understanding
that the sacred places of Ottoman Empire would be in the hands of Khalipha. But
after the War, a new treaty was imposed on the Turkish Sultan and Ottoman
Empire was divided. This angered the Muslims who took it as an insult to the
Khalipha. Shoukat Ali and Mohammad Ali started the Khilafat Movement against
the British government.
After the end of the First World War, the British government
also passed another Act known as the Rowlatt Act. The Act authorized the
British government to arrest and imprison any person without trial in a court
of law. It also banned Indians from keeping any type of weapon. This angered
the Sikhs, who kept a kripan (a type of small sword) with them as part of their
religion. The Indians considered this Act as an insult to them. On 13th April,
1919 on the occasion of Baisakhi fair at Jallianwalla Bagh (Amritsar), people
had gathered for peaceful protest against this Act. Suddenly, a British officer,
General Dyer, entered into the park with his troops and ordered them to open
fire on the crowd with their machine guns. This was done without any warning to
the people. The Jalianwalla Bagh gates were closed and the people - men, women
and children could not escape to safety. Within a few minutes about a thousand
persons were killed. The massacre aroused the fury of the Indian people.
Showing his anger and pain, the famous philosopher-poet Rabindra Nath Tagore
returned his Knighthood to the British government.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.
Explain three causes which led to national consciousness
among Indians during
the British regime.
2. Why was British government interested in the formation of
Indian National
Congress in 1885?
3. What were the differences between the Moderates and the
Radicals?
4. Why did the Indian leaders support the British during the
First World War?
5. Why was the Khilafat movement against British rule?
EMERGENCE OF GANDHI
Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi was a lawyer, trained in Britain.
He went to South Africa in 1893 and resided there for twenty one years. The
treatment of the Indians in South Africa by the British provoked his
conscience. He decided to fight against the policy of racial discrimination of
the South African Government. During the course of his struggle against the
government he evolved the technique of Satyagraha (non-violent insistence for
truth and justice). Gandhi succeeded in this struggle in South Africa.
He returned to India in 1915. In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati
Ashram at Ahmadabad to practice the ideas of truth and non-violence. Gopal
Krishna Gokhale advised him to tour the country mainly in the villages to
understand the people and their problems. His first experiment in Satyagraha
began at Champaran in Bihar in 1917 when he inspired the peasants to struggle
against the oppressive plantation system. He also organised a satyagraha to
support the peasants of the Kheda districts of Gujarat. These peasants were not
able to pay their revenue because of crop failure and epidemics. In Ahmedabad,
he organized a movement amongst cotton mill workers.
Mohan Das Karamchand
Gandhi
You are requested by the peasant community to contact
Gandhiji and invite him to visit Champaran. Write a letter to him explaining
the conditions of the peasants there and what you would like him to do for
these people.
The Non-Cooperation
Movement (1920-22)
Gandhiji by this time, was convinced that no useful purpose
would be served by supporting the government. He was also emboldened by his
earlier success in Bihar In the light of the past events and the actions of
British government, he decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the
proposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. He threatened to start the non-cooperation
movement in case the government failed to accept his demands. Why do you think
Gandhiji protested against the Act? It was because the Act gave the government
enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of
political prisoners without any trial for two years. Gandhiji wanted non
violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws. The government paid no
heed to it. Gandhiji, therefore, started his non-cooperation movement in August
1920, in which he appealed to the people not to cooperate with the British government.
At this time, the Khilafat movement started by the Muslims and the
Noncooperation movement led by Gandhi merged into one common confrontation
against the British Government.
For this Gandhi laid down an elaborate programme-
(1) Surrender of
titles and honorary offices as well as resignation from nominated seats in
local bodies;
(2) refusal to attend official and non-official functions;
(3) gradual withdrawal
of children from officially controlled schools and colleges;
(4) gradual boycott of British courts by lawyers and
litigants;
(5) refusal on the part of the military, clerical and
labouring classes to offer themselves as recruits for service in Mesopotamia;
(6) boycott of elections to the legislative council by candidates
and voters;
(7) boycott of foreign
goods and National schools and colleges.
Later, it was supplemented with a constructive programme
which had three principal features:
(1) promotion of ‘Swadeshi’, particularly hand-spinning and
weaving;
(2) Removal of untouchability among Hindus;
(3) promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Due to this appeal of Gandhiji, an unusual frenzy overtook
the country. A large number of people, dropping their differences, took part in
this movement. Over two-thirds of the voters abstained from taking part in the
elections to the Council, held in November, 1920. Thousands of students and
teachers left their schools and colleges and new Indian educational centers
were started by them. Lawyers like Moti Lal
Gandhi during National Movement Nehru, C. R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and
Asif Ali boycotted the courts. Legislative Assemblies were also boycotted.
Foreign goods were boycotted and the clothes were put on bonfire. But, during
this movement some incidents took place that did not match with the views of
Gandhiji. The non-violent Non-Cooperation Movement, which started auspiciously,
was marked by violence in August, 1921. The government started taking serious
action. Prominent leaders were arrested. In two months, nearly 30,000 people
were imprisoned. The outbreak of violence cautioned Gandhi. Mob violence took
place on February 9, 1922, at Chauri Chaura village, in Gorakhpur district of
UP. This was followed by more violence at Bareilly. Gandhi suspended his
noncooperation on February 14, 1922. He was arrested at Ahmadabad on March 18,
1922, and sentenced to six years simple imprisonment. The non-cooperation
movement failed to achieve success, yet it succeeded to prepare a platform for
the future movements. After taking back the Non-Cooperation movement, Gandhiji
and his followers were busy in creative activities in village areas. By this he
gave the message to the people to remove the cast based animosity.
In 1922, Gandhiji suspended his non-cooperation movement
after Chauri Chaura incident, even when the movement was on its peak. Many
people criticized the decision of Gandhi ji. Imagine that you were a journalist
at that time and you got an assignment to interview Mahatma Gandhi just after
this movement. Write an imaginary dialogue of your discussions with Mahatma
Gandhi asking him to justify his decision.
C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru and other like minded persons
hatched out a novel plan of non-cooperation from within the reformed councils.
They formed the Swaraj Party on January 01, 1923. C. R. Das was the president
of the party and Motilal Nehru the Secretary. The party was described as ‘a
party within the Congress’ and not a rival organization. But, they could
neither end nor amend the Act of 1919. In 1927, British government appointed a
commission under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. The Commission was
appointed to study the reforms of 1919 and suggest further measures for
Constitutional reforms. The Commission had no Indian member in it. The Indians
boycotted this all-White commission. Therefore, when this Commission arrived in
India, it faced protests all over the country. Black flags were shown,
demonstrations and Hartals took place all over the country and the cry of
‘Simon go back’ was heard. These demonstrators were lathi charged at a number
of places by the British Police. Lala Lajpat Rai was severely assaulted by the
police and he succumbed to his injuries. This agitation against the Simon
Commission gave a new strength to the National Movement of India.
Meanwhile, Indian political leaders were busy in drafting a
Constitution. This is known as Nehru Report which formed the outline of the
Constitution. Among its important recommendations were a declaration of rights,
a parliamentary system of government, adult franchise and an independent
judiciary with a supreme court at its head. Most of its recommendations formed
the basis of the Constitution of independent India which was adopted more than
twenty years later. At the historic annual session of Congress in Lahore in
1929, the Congress committed itself to a demand for Purna-Swaraj or complete
independence and issued a call to the country to celebrate 26th January as
Purna-Swaraj Day. On January 26, 1930, the Congress celebrated independence
Day’. On the same day in 1950 the Constitution of Independent India was
adopted, making India a sovereign, democratic socialist republic. Since then
January 26th is celebrated as Republic Day.
Dandi March
Around the same time, the government made a new law. They
imposed taxes on the use of salt. This was opposed by the people, as salt was
the basic need of the people. But, no attention was paid to demands of the
people. During March-April, 1930, Gandhi marched from his Sabarmati Ashram to
Dandi on the Gujarat coast for the purpose of raiding the Government Salt. The
violation of salt law was his first challenge to the government. It was a
peaceful march. Gandhi committed a technical breach of the Salt Law on
6thApril, 1930, when he picked up the scattered sea salt from the coast to break
this Law. In this movement farmers, traders and Gandhi during Dandi March women
took part in large numbers. The government arrested him in May 1930 and put him
in Yervada jail at Poona. The campaign had a significant effect on British
attitude toward Indian independence. Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931 was one of its
examples. Gandhiji also went to London in 1931 and participated in the second
round table conference as the sole representative of the Congress but no
settlement could be arrived at. Although, Gandhi’s arrest removed him from the
active leadership of the movement, this civil disobedience continued. Special
stress was laid on boycott of foreign goods particularly clothes.
The Civil Disobedience Movement, though a failure, was a
vital phase in the struggle for the freedom. It promoted unity among Indians of
different regions under the Congress banner. It provided an opportunity to
recruit younger people and educate them for positions of trust and
responsibility in the organization as also in provincial administration, which
was captured in the 1937 elections. It gave wide publicity to political ideas
and methods throughout the country and generated political awareness even in
remote villages.
THE REVOLUTIONARIES
The reactionary policy of the British developed a deep hatred
towards them among a section of the younger generation of India. They believed
that India could achieve independence only by an organized revolutionary
movement. As a result, they organized secret groups to launch revolutionary activities
against the British. Youths were trained in aggressive methods of violence as a
means of strength against the British. They attempted killing of unpopular
British officials, committed dacoities to finance their activities and looted
arms. Many of them, therefore, chose the path of violence to gain independence
for India. They were called the revolutionaries. The centres of their
activities were Punjab, Maharashtra, Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.
Prominent among these revolutionaries were Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki,
Bhupendra Nath Dutt, V. D. Savarkar, Sardar Ajit Singh, Lala Hardayal and his
Gadar Party, Sardar Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru, Sukh Deo, Chandra Shekhar Azad,
etc. These revolutionaries organized secret societies, murdered many British
officers, disrupted railway traffic, engaged in organized attack on British
wealth. In order to overturn the British Rule through arms, Kakori Conspiracy
was planned by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan and other team members of
the Hindustan Republican Association in 1925. In 1928, Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association was formed by Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh,
Batukeshwar Dutt and others.
Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the
Central Legislative Assembly on 8thApril, 1929 protesting against the passage
of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of
Inquilab Zindabad (long live the revolution), though no one was killed or
injured in the bomb incident. Following the trial in court of this and other
cases, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were Indian National Movement Indian
National Movement hanged in 1931. Their
sacrifice provided an incentive to the people. They were regarded martyrs and
became the symbol of national unity and aspirations. Bhagat Singh Sukh Deo Raj
Guru Chandra Shekhar Azad Gather a collection of movies based on Indian
Nationalism. See those movies and identify the major issues of Nationalism
raised through them. Do these movies really play an important role in sensitizing
us towards Nationalism? Put your thoughts down in your diary and discuss this
with your family and friends.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIALIST IDEAS
A significant feature of the twentieth century was the
development of Socialist ideas in Congress and outside it. Peasants now started
asking for land reforms, abolition of zamindari system and reduction in the
revenue and debt relief. The All India Trade Union Congress which was founded
in 1920 worked towards improvement in the workers’ working and living condition.
It mobilized the workers to the cause of complete independence which helped the
movement to be broad based. Some of the prominent socialist and communist
leaders were M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Abani Mukhopadhyaya, Nalini Gupta, Muzaffar
Ahmed, Shaukat Usmani, Gulam Hussain, Singaravelu Chettair, G.M. Adhikari and
P.C. Joshi. They outlined the course of the revolution through transformation
of individual strike into a general political strike, the development of
spontaneous peasant movements, a nationwide movement for complete independence,
as well as the spread of revolutionary propaganda amongst the police and the
army. Struggle against imperialism was the rallying slogan. In 1936, when Nehru
was the President of the Congress, he declared at the Lucknow Session that the
solution to India’s problems lay in the adoption of socialist ideas. Nehru was
deeply influenced by Karl Marx. Even Subhash Chandra Bose was influenced by
socialist ideas. Because of differences with Gandhi, Bose resigned from the
Congress and formed his own ‘Forward Bloc’.
COMMUNAL DIVIDE
The policy of divide and rule was inaugurated right in the
days of East India Company when the Britishers were establishing themselves as
rulers of India. You have read how the Company set one Indian ruler against the
other and ultimately it became the undisputable ruler. You have seen that, in
the latter half of the 19th Century, Nationalism started growing. Now the
British government found it prudent to vitalize their policies of divide and
rule and drive a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims.
The British had looked upon the Muslims with disfavor and
suspicion since the revolt of 1857. But now they realized that in order to
counteract the growing Nationalism, time had come to appease the Muslims. The
Government seized every opportunity to set the Indians against one another on
the basis of religion and creating hostility between them. Ultimately, in
accordance with this policy, separate electorates for Muslims were established.
You have read about the formation of the Muslims League which sowed the seeds
of communalism. You will remember that the league had been formed on the
encouragement of British officials.
The Communal Award of 1932 was a continuance of this policy,
because it allowed separate electorates and reservation of seats to the
depressed classes also. Separate electorates were first demanded by the Muslims
in 1906 and introduced for them under the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1907. This
was done with a view to building up Muslim communalism as a counterpoise
against Indian Nationalism. Under the Montford Reforms (1919) they were
extended for Sikhs, Europeans, Anglo-Indians,Indian Christians, etc. Under the
Act of 1935 seventeen separate electorates were constituted. In reality,
communal electorates were an unmixed evil. They hampered the growth of national
unity. The two-nation theory appeared in 1938 and was clearly communicated by
Jinnah in 1940. Once, the demand for Pakistan was made, it received direct and
indirect encouragement from British authorities. The immediate cause of the
emergence of the demand for Pakistan was the refusal of the Congress to form
coalition ministries after the elections of 1937. The county seemed to be
drifting towards anarchy and ruin. Under the circumstances, partition was
accepted as a ‘necessary evil’, the only way of getting rid of British rule and
preventing a complete breakdown of law and order.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How was Satyagraha different from the other protests?
2. Why was Simon Commission boycotted by Indians? Give two
reasons.
3. Why did Gandhi withdraw the non-cooperation movement?
4. How was the approach of revolutionaries different from the
others?
5. What do you understand by ‘Purna-Swaraj’?
6. How was communal divide in India promoted by the British?
8.12 ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE (1935-47)
The British Government prepared a White Paper in March, 1933.
On the basis of this White Paper, a Bill was prepared and introduced in
parliament in December, 1934. The Bill was finally passed as the Government of
India Act on August 2, 1935. The most conspicuous feature of the Act of 1935
was the concept of an All India Federation comprising the Provinces of British
India and the Princely States. It was compulsory for the Provinces to join the
proposed federation. For the Princely States it was voluntary. The members from
the provinces were to be elected, while the representatives of the States were
to be nominated by the rulers. Only 14 percent of the population in British
India had the right to vote. The powers of the Legislature were confined and
restricted. It had no control over defense and foreign relations.
The Act protected British vested interests, discouraging the
emergence of national unity, rather encouraging separation and communalism. All
nationalists, including Nehru and Jinnah, condemned the Act.
The Congress session met in Lucknow on 25th April, 1935.
Though the Act was condemned, it was decided to contest the elections to resist
British imperialism and to end the various regulations, ordinances and Acts,
which were initiated against Indian Nationalism. In the 1937 elections the
Congress swept the poll. Congress Ministries were formed in seven out of the
eleven provinces. On March 18, 1937, the All India Congress Committee adopted a
resolution on Congress policies in the legislatures. It claimed that the
Congress had contested the elections “with its objective of independence and
its total rejection of the new constitution, and the demand for a Constituent
Assembly to frame India’s constitution. The declared Congress policy was to
combat the New Act and end it”. The immediate effect of the coming of the
Congress Ministries was a feeling of relief. Political prisoners were released
and a large measure of civil liberty was established. Agrarian legislation was
also passed and this provided considerable relief to the peasantry. Basic
education was intended to be made free and compulsory for every child.
National Movement during the Second World War
When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the Congress
attitude was one of sympathy, though it refused unconditional cooperation. The
Congress demanded that “India must be declared an independent union, and
present application must be given to this status to the largest possible
extent”. The British did not agree and as a result all the ministries resigned
in protest in 1939. A demand for Provisional National Government at the Centre
was made at the instance of C. Rajagopalachari in 1940. It was turned down by
the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow. In October, 1940 was launched the Civil
Disobedience Campaign. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer individual
Satyagraha.
All India Committee of the Cabinet, with Attlee as
Chairperson, was set up and a draft declaration was made. In March, 1942, Sir
Stafford Cripps came to India with the draft declaration. It stated the British
Government’s desire to grant India ‘Dominion Status’ at the end of the war.
Complete Independence was not promised.
There was no mention of a national government of the Indian
people. The Congress rejected the offer. The Muslim League, opposed to the
creation of a single union, found the scheme unacceptable, as it did not
unequivocally concede Pakistan. The Cripps Mission failed.
The struggle for independence was carried on by Subhash
Chandra Bose from abroad. He found the outbreak of the Second World War to be a
convenient opportunity to strike a blow for the freedom of India. Bose had been
put under house arrest in 1940 but he managed to escape to Berlin on March 28,
1941. The Indian community there acclaimed him as the leader (Netaji). He was
greeted with ‘Jai Hind’ (Salute to the motherland). He tried to raise an Indian
army and urge his country people to rise in arms against the British. In 1942,
the Indian Independence League was formed and a decision was taken to form the
Indian National Army (INA) for the liberation of India. On an invitation from
Ras Bihari Bose, Subhash Chandra Bose came to East Asia on June 13, 1943. He
was made president of the Indian Independence League and the leader of the INA
popularly called ‘Azad Hind Fauj’. He gave the famous battle cry ‘Chalo Dilli’.
He promised independence to Indians saying, ‘tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe
Azadi dunga’ (You give me blood, I will give you freedom). In March 1944, the
Indian flag was hoisted at Kohima.
Unfortunately, after that the movement collapsed. What
happened to Netaji remains a mystery. It is said that he lost his life in an
air crash in August 1945. But it could not be ascertained. The INA continued to
occupy an honored place in India’s freedom struggle. The intense patriotism of
Bose and the soldiers of the INA proved a tremendous source of inspiration for
the Indian people.
Subhash Chandra Bose and Indian National Army Quit India
Movement and After The failure of the Cripps Mission made the Indians
frustrated and embittered. It was felt that time had now come for launching
another mass movement against the British rule. Discontent of Indian people was
increasing due to wartime shortages and growing unemployment. There was a
constant danger of Japanese attack. The Indian leaders were convinced that
India would be a victim of Japanese aggression only because of British presence
in India. Gandhiji said, “the presence of the British in India is an invitation
to Japan to invade India”. Subhash Chandra Bose, who escaped from India in
1941, repeatedly spoke over radio from Berlin arousing anti-British feeling
which gave rise to pro-Japanese sentiments.
The Congress under Gandhiji felt that the British must be
compelled to accept Indian demands or quit the country. A meeting of the
Congress Working Committee in Wardha passed the Quit India Resolution on 14th
July, 1942 which was later endorsed and passed on 8th August at the Bombay
session of the Congress. The Congress decided to launch a mass struggle on
non-violent lines, on the widest possible scale. Addressing the Congress
delegates on the night of 8th August, Gandhiji, in his soul stirring speech,
said: “I therefore want freedom immediately, this very night before dawn if it
can be had …..I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete
freedom. Here is a ‘mantra’, a short one that I give you. You may imprint on
your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The ‘mantra’
is ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die in the attempt. We shall not
live to see the perpetuation of slavery.”
But before the Congress leaders could start the movement
formally, all important leaders of Congress were arrested before the dawn of
9th August 1942. Congress was banned and declared as an illegal organization.
The Press was censored. The news of the arrest of popular leaders shocked the
nation. Their anger and resentment was expressed through numerous agitations,
hartals, processions and demonstrations in all parts of the country. With most
of the important leaders in jail, the movement took a different shape at
different places. The people gave vent to their anger by burning government
buildings, police stations, post offices anything that symbolized British
authority. Railways and telegraphs lines were disconnected. At some places,
such as in Balia district in U.P., Midnapore district of West Bengal and in
Satara in Bombay, the revolt took a serious turn. Inspired by the ‘mantra’ of
Gandhiji people were ready to make the supreme sacrifice. The British with its
army and police came down heavily on the Indian people. The people were shot
indiscriminately. The Quit India Movement became one of the greatest mass-movements
of historical significance. It demonstrated the depth of national sentiments
and indicated the capacity of the Indian people for sacrifice and determined
struggle.
After this movement there was no retreat. Independence of
India was no longer a matter of bargain. It was to be a reality.
Quit India Movement
(August, 1942)
At the end of the World War in 1945, the British government
started to talk about the transfer of power to Indian Hindus and Muslims. The
first round of talks could not be successful because Muslim leaders thought
that the Muslim League was the only one who could represent Indian Muslims. The
Congress did not agree upon it. In 1946, the Cabinet Mission arrived in India
to find a mutually agreed solution of the Indian Problem. The Mission held
talks with the leaders of all prominent political parties and then proposed its
plan of establishing Federal Government in India.
Initially the plan was criticized by all political parties,
but later all gave their consent to it. When the election to the Constituent
Assembly took place, the Congress won one hundred ninety nine seats and the
Muslim league won seventy three.
Partition and
Independence of India
Differences soon arose between the Congress and the Muslim
League concerning the powers of the Constituent Assembly. The League rejected
the Cabinet Mission Plan in the middle of 1946. In September 1946, the Congress
formed the government at the Centre. The League refused to be a part to it.
Muslim League celebrated this day as a ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th August 1946
to attain Pakistan. The conflict resulted in widespread communal riots in
different parts of India. Thousands were killed in the riots, lacks of people
became homeless. In the mean time, Lord Mountbatten was sent as the Viceroy to
India. He put up his plan in June 1947 which included partition of India. In
spite of strong opposition by Gandhi, all the parties agreed to the partition
and the Indian Independence Act, 1947 came into being. It created two
independent states in the Indian sub-continent, i.e. Indian Union and Pakistan.
India got its independence on 15th August, 1947. At the stroke of midnight
(14th -15th August, 1947), transfer of power took place.
Imagine you were chosen by the British government as a member
of the Cabinet Mission to talk to the members of the Indian National Congress
and Muslim League and discuss how to transfer power after independence. Make a
list of proposals that you would present before them?
Write two basic features of the Act of 1935.
2.
What was the demand of Muslim League?
3.
What led to the participation of Congress in the elections
after 1935?
4.
Why were the Indian leaders concerned about the British
presence in India during
the Second World War?
5.
What were the major causes of the partition of India?
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT? .
Renaissance, the French Revolution, American Revolution,
Russian Revolution had promoted the idea of Nationalism in the world.
Anti-colonial movement led to the rise of Nationalism in India in 19th Century.
The contemporary social and religious reform movements also contributed to the
rise of feelings of Nationalism.
Indian National Congress was founded in 1985 only to
communicate with British government on behalf of the Indian people and voice
their grievances. In 1905, Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. The
Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the
growing national movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the
region. In 1906, Muslim League was formed in Dacca with the objective to
protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and represent their needs to
the government.
Difference in ideas led to split in Congress in 1907. Two
groups i.e. Moderates (Naram Dal) and Radicals (Garam Dal) were formed. In the
First World War, Indian leaders agreed to help the British Government on the
condition that the latter would give Constitutional powers to Indians after the
war.
Gandhiji successfully experimented with the technique of
Satyagraha in South Africa as well as Champaran, Kheda and Ahmadabad in
India. Gandhiji started the mass
movement in India against the British policies. He was the leader who could
encourage and involve all sections of society in this movement. .
The revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad,
Sukhdeo, etc.chose the path of aggressive movement against the British
government. . The seed of communal divide in India, sowed by the British, led
to the future consequence of partition. . The struggle for Independence was
carried on by Subhash Chandra Bose from abroad. He became the leader of Indian
National Army to liberate India from British. .The Quit India movement paved
the way for India’s freedom. It was the final call from Gandhiji to ‘Do or
Die’.
. Muslim League demanded the formation of Pakistan for
Muslims which led to the partition. India got its freedom on 15th August, 1947.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1.
In the initial years of its existence, what types of demands
were put by the Indian
National Congress before the British government?
2. Why was Lord Curzon interested in the partition of Bengal?
3.
What was the significance of the Satyagrah of Gandhi in
Africa? What was the
nature of his Satyagraha in India?
188
4.
Do you think that the Non-Cooperation movement was successful
in its goal?
Give two reasons in support of your argument.
5.
Why was the Simon Commission asked to leave India?
6.
Why did the Dandi March lead to the arrest of Gandhi?
7.
What made the revolutionaries throw a bomb in the Legislative
Assembly?
8.
Discuss the role of Azad Hind Fauz led by Subhash Chandra
Bose in the Indian
National Movement.
9.
How did the ‘Quit India’ Movement contributed to the
independence of India?
10. Mention three causes that forced the Britishers give
India independence in the
twentieth century.
By promoting separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, etc.
and encouraging Muslim League to raise communal demands.
1.
Princely States and the British Provinces all had to come
under All India Federation. It restricted the power of legislature, i.e. no
control over defense and foreign relations.
2.
Muslim League demanded a separate nation for Muslims, i.e.
Pakistan.
3.
To gain constitutional power and change the British laws,
Congress decided to participate in the elections.
4.
Because British presence in India could lead to Japanese
invasion during Second
World War.
5.
The communal divide, demand of Muslim League and lack of
consensus between
the political parties.
India : Natural Environment, Resources and Development
9. Physiography of India
10. Climate
11. Bio-diversity
12. Agriculture in India
13. Transport and Communication
14. Population : Our Greatest Resource
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