INDIAN LANGUAGES
AND
LITERATURE- (SEPS)
INDIAN LANGUAGES: THE ROLE OF SANSKRIT
Ever since human
beings have invented scripts, writing has reflected the culture, lifestyle, society
and the polity of contemporary society. In the process, each culture evolved
its own language and created a huge literary base. This literary base of a
civilization tells us about the evolution of each of its languages and culture
through the span of centuries. Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages.
The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit.
There is also a variety of secular and regional literature. By reading about
the languages and literature created in the past, we shall be able to
understand our civilization better and appreciate the diversity and richness of
our culture. All this was possible because of the language that developed
during that time.
Sanskrit is the
most ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-two languages listed
in the Indian Constitution .The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with
the most ancient thought embodied in the Rig Veda, the oldest literary heritage
of mankind, and the Zend Avesta. It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study
of linguistics scientifically during the eighteenth century. The great
grammarian Panini analyzed Sanskrit and its word formation in his unrivalled
descriptive grammar Ashtadhyayi.
The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the
Mahayana school and the Hinayana school also.
The most important
work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is a storehouse of stories.
While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied
literary material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa. Sanskrit is perhaps the
only language that transcended the barriers of regions and boundaries. From the
north to the south and the east to the west there is no part of India that has
not contributed to or been affected by this language. Kalhan’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of the kings
of Kashmir whereas with Jonaraja we
share the glory of Prithviraj. The
writings of Kalidasa have added
beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings. Other great literacy works,
which marked the golden era of Indian literature include ‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’
by Kalidasa, ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka,
‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha.
Some other famous works are Chanakya’s
‘Arthashastra’ and Vatsyayana’s
“Kamasutra’.
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THE VEDAS
The Vedas are
the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and
were handed down orally from one generation to the other. Do you know that preservation
of the Vedas till today is one of our most remarkable achievements? To be able
to keep such a literary wealth as the Vedas intact when the art of writing was
not there and there was a paucity of writing material is unprecedented in world
history. The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are
considered as eternal and divine revelations. They treat the whole world as one
human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
There are four
Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. Each Veda
consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas. The Rig Veda, Sama
Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. In later years the
Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.
Rig Veda
The Rig Veda is
the earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit. Many
of these are beautiful descriptions of nature. The prayers are largely for
seeking worldly prosperity. It is believed that these recitations are the
natural outpouring of Vedic rishis experiencing a mentally transcendental
stage. Some of the well-known rishis are Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada,
Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. The prominent gods of the Rig Veda are Indra,
Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi and the Ashwini twins. Some of the
prominent goddesses are Usha - the goddess of dawn, Vak - the goddess of
speech and Prithvi - the goddess of earth. Do you know that most of the hymns
spoke of universally recognised higher values of life such as truthfulness,
honesty, dedication, sacrifice, politeness and culture. The prayers are for
seeking worldly prosperity and for the development of a highly cultured
society. Along with religion Rig Veda provides us knowledge about social,
political and economic condition of ancient India.
Yajur Veda
Yajur means
sacrifice or worship. This Veda is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of different
sacrifices. It gives directions for the performance of the yajnas. It has both
poetic and prose renderings. Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most
popular of the four Vedas. There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely
Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda i.e. Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita.
This text reflects on the social and religious condition of India at that time.
Sama Veda, sama means melody
or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes. Out
of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. The
Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
It may be called the book of Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the
development of Indian music during this period.
Atharva Veda
The Atharva Veda
is also known as the Brahma Veda. It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases.
The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras.
The Atharva Veda is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an
early period of civilisation. It has two branches, the Paippalada and the
Saunaka. This book gives detailed information about the family, social and
political life of later Vedic period.
In order to
understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the
Vedas. These supplements of the Vedas provide education (siksha), grammar
(vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology (nirukta), metrics (chhanda)
and astronomy (Jyotisha). A good deal of literature grew around
these subjects. It was written in the form of precepts in the sutra style. A
precept was called sutra because of its brevity. The most famous example of
this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the rules of grammar
and also throws light on society, economy and culture of those times.
Brahmanas and
Aranyakas
After the four
Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed. These books gave
a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the
science of sacrifice. The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the
Aranyakas while the final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads
which belong to the later stage of the Brahmana literature. Each of the four
Vedas have their own Brahmana books. Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya.
Taitteriya belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpath belongs to Shukla Yajur
Veda. Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belongs to Atharva Veda. It is through
them that we get a detailed information of the social, political and religious
life of the people.
The Arayankas
deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. These were studied and taught by men in
Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living inside the forests.
All these works
were in Sanskrit. Initially they were handed down orally and were put to
writing much
later. It is very
difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were written.
Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While according
to Lokmanya Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C.
Distincion
between Sruti and Smriti
Both sruti and
smriti represent categories of texts that are used to establish the rule of law
within the Hindu tradition. Sruti is solely of divine origin and contains no specific
concepts of law. Because of the divine origin, it is preserved as a whole instead
of verse by verse. With sruti, the desire is more towards recitation and preservation
of its divine attributes and not necessarily towards understanding and interpreting
the oral tradition like that found in smriti.
THE UPANISHADS
The word
Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-down),
that is, “sitting down near”. Groups of pupil sit near the Guru to learn from
him in the Guru-shishya parampara or tradition. The Upanishads mark the
culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts of the Vedas. As the
Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical
problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end. That is why they are
called the end of Vedas. Vedas start with the worship of the manifest, as that
is obvious and then slowly transform to the knowledge of the unmanifest There
are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktika, gives a list of 108
Upanishads – this number corresponds to the holy number of beads on a mala or Hindu
rosary.
The Upanishads
form an important part of our literary legacy. They deal with questions like
the origin of the universe, life and death, the material and spiritual world,
nature of knowledge and many other questions. The earliest Upanishads are the
Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the Sukla Yajur Veda and Chand yogya which
belongs to the Sama Veda. Some of the other important Upanishads are the
Aitareya, Kena, Katha Upanishad.
Try and find out
some other important Upanishads on your own. Read them and you will find a whole new
world of Indian philosophy opening in front of you. There are more books selling on
the Upanishads. Start with the small stories. Get interested in them and than go to the
whole book of any Upanishad.
THE RAMAYANA AND
THE MAHABHARATA
Our two great
epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana of Valmiki is the
original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya and Maharishi Valmiki is known as Adi
Kavi. The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal society. The other epic, the
Mahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written in Sanskrit
and contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya” or the collection dealing with
victory. These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named
after one of the earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the
verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri
Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to
conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The Mahabharata and the
Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian languages.
The Mahabharata
contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of divine wisdom
and is truly a universal gospel. Though it is a very ancient scripture, its
fundamental teachings are in use even today. In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna
explains to Arjuna his duties as a
warrior and prince and elaborate on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with
examples and analogies. This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and
a parochial, self-contained guide to life. In modern times Swami Vivekananda,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help
inspire the Indian independence movement. This was mainly because the Bhagvad
Gita spoke of positiveness in human actions. It also spoke of duty towards God and
human beings alike forgetting about the results. You will appreciate the fact
that the Gita has been translated nearly in all the main langauges of the
world.
PURANAS
The Puranas
occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the Hindus. They are regarded
next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics. There are said to be
eighteen Puranas and about the same number of Upapuranas. Some of the well
known Puranas are - Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya and
Garuda. Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was
gaining importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic culture.
Puranas are
mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages through parables and fables. They
have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives of the
people. The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas
were compiled in the Gupta period.
They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the education
of the common people. These Puranas contain important geographical information/
histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic
genealogies. This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law
books written in verse. The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins
after the Gupta period. Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a
Purana should describe five topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga
(Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa (Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and
(5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic history)
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BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE IN PALI,
PRAKRIT AND
SANSKRIT
The religious
books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents. The
earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South
Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the
non-canonical. The canonical literature is best represented by the
“Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily
life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with
Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes
discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of
knowledge and mataphysical problems. The non-canonical literature is best
represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the
previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally born
as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births,
in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka.
The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make
incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
The Jain texts
were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi
in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made
to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century
AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages which help us to
reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain
texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Ancient Indian literature can be
placed in two categories:
(a) Religiouis
and non religious or secular. Religious literature has the
(a) four Vedas
- Rig Veda- the
oldest of the Vedas contains 1028 hymns known as Sukta or “Well said”. - Sam
Veda contains the hymns that are sung by a special class of priests at the time
of soma Sacrifice.
- Yajur
Veda-contains hymns that are recited at the time of ordinary sacrifice.
- Atharva
Veda-collection of songs, spells, magical charms for the evil spirits, etc.
(b) The
Brahmanas - attached to the Vedas. They explain in detail the value and
efficacy of
sacrifices.
(c) Aranyakas-
are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.
(d) Upanishads -
Meant to be learnt sitting near the guru.
(e) Epics like
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
(f) Buddhist
literature
(g) Jain
literature
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OTHER SANSKRIT LITERATURE
We also have a
large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and grammar.
To this class belong the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis,
together known as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500
and 200 BC. These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for
the kings and their officials. They prescribed the rules according to which
property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe punishments
for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells
us about the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct and
relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra
is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state of
society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of
ancient Indian polity and economy. The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and
Banabhatta provided us with glimpses of the social and cultural life of
northern and central India in times of the Guptas and Harsha. The Gupta period
also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of Panini and
Patanjali.
Famous Sanskrit
Authors of the Gupta Period
The Gupta period
was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and most glorious
times. The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature. They
helped liberally the scholars and poets of Sanskrit. This enriched the Sanskrit
langauge. In fact Sanskrit language became the language of cultured and
educated people. Many great poets, dramatists and scholars appeared during this
period and works in Sanskrit reached great heights. 1. Kalidas: Poet Kalidas
wrote many beautiful poems and plays. His works in Sanskrit are considered the
gems of Literature. He wrote passionate plays and poems. His wonderful skill is
exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusambara. Kumar Sambhavam
and Raghuvamsha. His plays are Abhijan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi and
Malvikaganimithram. 2. Vishakhdutta: Vishakhdutta was another great play writer
of this period. He wrote two great historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Dev
Chandra Gupta. 3. Shudraka: He wrote an exciting play Mrichchha Katikam or the
Toy Cart. It is a great source of socio-cultural conditions of that time.
4. Harisena:
Among the great poets and play writers of the Gupta period was Harisena. He
wrote poems praising the valour of Samudra Gupta. It is inscribed on Allahabad
pillar. 5. Bhasa: He wrote thirteen plays which echo the lifestyle of the era
along with its prevalent beliefs and culture.
The Kushana
kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharitra which
is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a
fine example of Sanskrit poetry.
India produced
great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy, Astrology, Agriculture
and Geography etc. Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by
Sushruta. Madhava wrote a book on pathology. Books written on astronomy by
Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on astrology by Lagdhacharya had all achieved
prominence. There is none that can compete with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita,
Aryabhatia and Vedanga Jyotisha. The post-medieval period in northern India saw
the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir. Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and
Kalhan’s Rajatarangini are of historical importance.
It gives a vivid
account of the Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the
finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on
different aspects of art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related
fields.
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6.8 TELUGU,
KANNADA AND MALAYALAM LITERATURE
The four
Dravadan languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam developed their own literature.
Tamil being the oldest of these langauges began writing earlier and produced
the sangam literature - the oldest literature in Tamil.
Telugu
Literature
The Vijayanagara
period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a court poet
of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam. Krishnadevaraya
(1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great
merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandha in
Telugu literature. Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas
adorned his court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram,
was the greatest. He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha. The other
seven poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam,
Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana,
Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
Dhurjati, a
devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as Kalahasteeswara
Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam, Pingali Surana composed two
works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former, he attempted
a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata simultaneously.
Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s
court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted with pleasure
even today. Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which
was considered one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana
was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti. His
other works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam.
It is a poetical work on the model of Raghavapandaviyam. One can
read in it stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra. Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra
is a prabandha dealing with the wars and loves of Rajashekhara, king
of Avanti. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam and
Sakalakathasara Sangraham.
Kannada
Literature
Apart from
Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit writers
as well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature. Madhava
wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another
Jain scholar, Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe. The Sanskrit works
of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and Parasara
Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
Kannada language
developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary work in
Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha
I. Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi
Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Pampa lived
in the court of Chalukya Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of description,
delineation of character and development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled.
Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha
Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the
three gems).
In the
thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara
wrote Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas
Bandhuvarma wrote Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana. Under
the patronage of later Hoysala rulers, several literary works were produced.
Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya. Andayya’s Madana Vijaya or Kabbïgara
Kava is a work of special interest in pure Kannada without the mixture of
Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s Suktisudharnava, the first anthology in
Kannada and Kesirja’s Shabdamanidarpana on grammar are two other standard
works in the Kannada language. Kannada literature flourished considerably
between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries under the patronage of the
Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important contribution
to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis
Ramayana. Lakshamisha who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini
Bharata and earned the titled of Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra (the
spring of the Karnataka mango grove). The other eminent poet of this period was
the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi
(three-lined) compositions serve as a source of wisdom and ethics. A
special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding poetess
in Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a
compendium of ethics.
Malayalam
Literature
Malayalam is
spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged
around the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognized as
an independent language.
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra
and Kokasandisan are two great works. Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an
Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature. Though it developed
much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has made a mark
as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers
and magazines are published in Malayalam. When people read and write in their
own language, they enjoy it more. This is because language is a part of their culture.
It is so well inter woven in their social life that they can express and feel
their emotions as well in their own language. This, must also be the case with
you and your language also.
TAMIL OR SANGAMA
LITERATURE
Tamil as a
written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is, therefore,
no wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four centuries
of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who in these
assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama
literature over a period of three to four centuries. Poets, bards and writers,
authors came from various parts of South India to Madurai. Such assemblies were
called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these assemblies was called
“Sangama literature”. The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who
wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated into many langauges are noteworthy. The
Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various
poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They are secular in nature and
of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. The poems collected in
the first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have
been collected.
There are about
30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuttokoi.
There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen
lower collections) and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is
generally assumed to be older than the latter, and considered to be of more
historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into three
parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and
government and the third part with love.
Besides the
Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with
grammar and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and
Manimekalai. These two were composed around the sixth century AD. The
first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a
love story. The second epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai. These
epics throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to
sixth century AD.
From the 6th to
12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars (saints who
sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement which
engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent. During this period, Kambaramayanam
and Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary classic writers.
WHAT YOU HAVE
LEARNT
· Heritage is the
sum total of intellectual treasure that is passed on from one generation to the
other.
· Sanskrit is the
most ancient language of India.
· Rig Veda is the
oldest and the richest literary heritage of mankind.
· The Upanishads
have influenced the greatest philosophers of the world.
· Our epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata still dominate the social ethos of our
country.
· The Puranas
provide the guiding light to the masses.
· Jainism laid
emphasis on good conduct and morality and preaches ahimsa, truthfulness
and austerity.
Jataka tales are an invaluable source of knowing the thoughts and lives
of the people
during that period. Buddhist sanghas became centres of great learning.
· There are
invaluable ancient treatises on law, political science, medicine, surgery,
biology,
chemistry, and
architecture.
· Tamil literature
is famous as Sangama literature.
TERMINAL
EXERCISE
1. “Sanskrit is
the root of many Indian languages”. Explain.
2. Discuss the
importance of the Upanishads.
3. Make a list
of two Buddhist and Jain literatures and then write about two of their
works which you
find interesting.
4. Write a short
note on the following:
(i) Sangama
literature
(ii) The Vedas
5. What is the
story behind the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai?
6. What is the
unique feature of Tarave’s Ramayana?
Richness of any
culture can been seen and appreciated but when it comes to language and
literature it is to be read and heard. We have to appreciate and take pride in this
particular aspect of our culture. We must make it a point to read as many books
writen during those times as it will help us to understand so many things that
happened in those times. It will help us to read more books and become familiar
with so many things that our happening around us today. In this lesson we will
learn about the development of modern Indian languages and their literature. We
will also read about the role played by the Christian missionaries in producing
the earliest dictionaries and grammar of modern Indian languages and the manner
in which these have helped in the growth of modern Indian literature. Besides
these, we shall also get to know the role of the Bhakti movement and
nationalism in the development of modern Indian literature.
OBJECTIVES
After reading
this lesson you will be able to:
· trace the
development of modern Indian languages;
· examine the
relationship between socio-cultural changes in the Indian society
and the
literature in different Indian languages;
· illustrate the
unity and the underlying diversity in the Indian languages and their
literature; and
· examine the
contribution of Indian languages and their literature in the
renaissance of
Indian society.
NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES & LITERATURE
We have already
seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medieval period.
The old apabhramsha
had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into
other forms. These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the written
language. The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change.
The alphabets during Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the time of
Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and were regular, presenting
the picture of a cultivated hand.
The studies have
indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that
of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi. A long and slow process had given
them this shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we
can easily understand this change. As for the spoken word, there are over 200
languages or dialects spoken in India at present. Some are widely used while
others are limited to a particular area. Out of all these, only twenty-two have
found their way into our Constitution. A large number of people speak Hindi in
its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and Avadhi (spoken in Oudh
region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila), and
Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant
or dialect of Hindi. This classification has been made on the basis of
literature produced by great poets over a length of time. Thus, the language
used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that used by
Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the one used by
Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the
one called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in
the thirteenth century its extensive use in literature began only in the
nineteenth century. It even shows
some influence of Urdu.
PERSIAN AND URDU
Urdu emerged as
an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th century AD. Arabic and
Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols. Persian
remained the court langage for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of
the interaction between Hindi and Persian.
After the
conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region. Urdu was born
out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the barracks with the
common people. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the
features of a formal language when the authors started using Persian script. It
was further given an impetus by its use in Bahamani states of Ahmadnagar,
Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called dakshini or daccani
(southern). As time passed, it became popular with the masses of Delhi.
Urdu became more
popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of later
Mughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry
and prose-started being composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah
Zafar wrote poetry in it. Some of his couplets have become quite well known in
the Hindi and Urdu speaking areas.
Urdu was given
its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left inimitable poetry
for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He
started writing as a poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of
Nizam ud-din Auliya. He is said to have composed ninty-nine works on separate
themes and numerous verses of poetry. Among the important works composed by him
are Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among
other well-known poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is
available in his collection called Bang- i - dara. His Sarejahan se
achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at many of the national celebrations
in India. No army parade is considered complete without the army band playing this
tune. In big Indian cities like Delhi these are many programmes in which famous
singers are invited to sing nazams or Ghazals written by famous poets like
Ghalib, Maum, Bulley Shah, Waris Shah besides many others. So you can imagine
how rich our language and literary culture must have been to continue till
today. It has enriched our lives and is central to people meeting and
intermingling with each other.
Among the best
prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar, who wrote the famous Fasanah-
i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a
doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that
is called a nazm. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held
symposiums in this language. Slowly it became quite popular. Pakistan has
adopted Urdu as the state language.
Development of
Literature during the Mughal Period
There was a
tremendous development in the field of literature during the Mughal times.
Babar and Humauan were lovers of literature. Baber was himself a great scholar
of Persian. He wrote a book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly esteemed by
the Turkish Literature. Humayun got the treatise translated into Arabic.
He too was a
lover of learning and had establihsed a big Library. Humayun Nama tops the
books written in his times. Akbar was very fond of leaning. ‘Akbar Nama’, Sur
Sagar, Ram Charitamanas are prominent among the books written during his time.
Malik Muhammad Jayasis
Padmavat and
Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also written during the same period. Jahangir
greatly patronized literature. Many scholars adorned his court. He too was a
scholar of a high caliber and wrote his life story. During Shah Jahan’s time
there was a well known scholar named Abdul Hameed Lahori. He wrote Badshah
Nama.
The literary
activities suffered during Aurangzeb’s time. Urdu literature started developing
during the last days of the Mughal emperor. This credit goes to Sir Sayyid
Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib. The language of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was very
simple and impressive. His compositions inspired the other urdu writer Mirza
Galib, who was a famous poet of his time. He made an important contribution to
uplift Urdu poetry. There were some other writers also who took interest in
Urdu poetry and enriched the Urdu literature. Maulvi Altab Hussain Ali, Akbar
Allahabadi and Dr. Mohammed Iqbal are some famous names. As Persian was the
language of the court, much of the literature produced in this period was
written in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in Persian.
Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj and Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came to India
during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important political events and
incidents in this language. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the
court language. Several historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied
literature in this language have come down to us. The mughal rulers were great
patrons of leaning and literature. Babar wrote his tuzuk (autobiography)
in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got it translated into Persian.
Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian. Jahangir’s
autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique piece of
literature. It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess.
Quite a fair amount of Persian
literature has been produced by the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul Fazl’s Akbarnamah
and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From there we get a good deal
of information about Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry.
Several collections of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come
down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal history, they indicate different
styles of letter writing. Another name in prose and history writing is that of
Chandra Bhan, a writer of Shahjahan’s days. Similarly, we have a work named Tabqat-i-Alamgïri,
shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was another writer who belonged during
Akbar’s time. In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry. All
this has now become a part of Indian heritage and culture. Among the noted
Hindu poets of this period were Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas and Rahim. Kabirs dohas
are still so popular today while Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas has become the most
sacred book of the Hindus. Behari’s Satsai written during Akbar’s reign is
very famous. Alankarashekhara by Keshav Mishra was produced in Akbar’s court.
It was a great Sanskrit work on the styles of writing. Akbar also got many
Sanskrit books like Bhagwad Gita and Upanishads translated into Persian.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
7.1
1. What are the
various forms of Hindi language?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Which
language is used by Tulsidas for Ramcharitmanas?
_______________________________________________________________
3. How did Urdu
language came into use in India?
_______________________________________________________________
4. Which coutry
has Urdu as a state language?
_______________________________________________________________
5. What is Urdu
langage called in Deccan?
_______________________________________________________________
HINDI LITERATURE
These was a
tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi
and Gujarati during this time. In the South, Malayalam emerged as an independent
language in the 14th century The emergence of all these languages resulted in the
decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which the administrative
machinery functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional
langages by the various saints helped in their growth and development. We have already
noted the various dialects that developed in northern and western India. Prithviraj
Raso is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi language. It is an
account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other rasos
were written. The language went on changing as the area where it was used
expanded. New words to express new situations were either coined or taken from
areas coming under its influence. Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics
for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was kept in mind by Hindi writers.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started a movement in
southern India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influence reached
the north, it started affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed
in Hindi. Poetry now became largely devotional in nature. Some of the poets
like Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language which was of that region only, while
others like Kabir, who moved from place to place added Persian and Urdu words
as well. Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on
Valmiki’s Ramayana, he also alters situations and adds quite a few new scenes
and situations based on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in
Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas has
deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being.
Hindi evolved
during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and the 14th
C. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the
Adi Kala (early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified
chiralry and poetry. The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and
Tulsidas. In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent and a
variety of literature was produced in Sanskrit.
Similarly,
Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a
young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the gopis.
These poets made a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. If the
festivals associated with Rama and Krishna have become so very popular, the
credit goes to these poets. Their versions became the source of inspiration not
only for other poets but also for painters in the medieval ages. They inspired
Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who, though a Muslim,
sang in praise of Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet. Rahim and
Bhushan were a class apart. Their subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari
wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives us a glimpse of shringar
(love)n and other rasas.
All the above
mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their sentiments essentially to
satisfy their own devotional instincts. Kabir did not believe in
institutionalised religion. He was a devotee of a formless God. Chanting His
name was the be-all and end-all for him. All these poets influenced the north
Indian society in a manner that had never happened earlier. As it is easier to
remember poetry than prose, they became immensely popular. During the last 150
years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern India
literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English.
One of the greatest Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first
Indian to win the Nobel Prize for literature (Geetanjali) in 1913. However, it
is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its
own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in
Hindi which were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other
languages. But he set the trend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who
wrote translations or made adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji
(l 838-94) wrote novels originally in Bangla. They came to be translated into
Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram, our national song, is an
excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to
Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated
Hindi as a common language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi and
contributed articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social
reforms.
Satyartha
Prakash was
his most important work in Hindi. Among other names who have enriched Hindi
literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu to Hindi.
Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the orthodoxies
in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues
related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar Prasad
wrote beautiful dramas.
Hindi Language
Makes Progress in Modern Period
Hindi Language: The development
of modern language started at the end of the 18th century. The main
writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu Harishchandra
also strengthened Hindi language. Similarly Raja Lakshman Singh translated Shakuntala
into Hindi. Hindi continued to develop in adverse circumstances as the office work
was done in Urdu.
Hindi
Literature: Bhartendu
Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, Ramchandra Shukla and Shyam Sunder Das
were the main among the prose writers of Hindi literature. Jai Shanker Prasad,
Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi
Verma, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Haribans Rai ‘Bacchan’ made great contribution
to the development of Hindi poetry. Similarly Prem Chand, Vrindavan lal Verma
and Ellachandra Joshi wrote novels and enriched Hindi literature. If we look at
the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand wrote
in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social
evils.
Munshi Prem
Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of the
poor and Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the second highest
civilian award highlighted the conditions of women in the society. ‘Nirala’
became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Who is the
author of Natya Shashtra?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is the
difference between the character of Rama in Valmikhi and Tulsidas?
_______________________________________________________________
3. How was
Krishna’s role in Sur Sagar different?
_______________________________________________________________
4. Our national
song Vandemataram is taken from which book?
_______________________________________________________________
5. Why do we
feel that Hindi writers wrote with a purpose?
_______________________________________________________________
BENGALI, ASSAMESE AND ORTYA LITERATURE
After Hindi, the
next significant literature was the one that developed in Bengal. The Baptist Mission
Press was established in Serampore near Calcutta in 1800. East India Company founded
the Fort William College in the same year. It provided training to civil
servants of the Company in law, customs, religions, languages and literatures
of India to enable them to work more efficiently.
The growth of
the Bhakti movement and the composition of various hymns associated with
Chaitanya provided a stimulus to the development and growth of Bengali.
Narrative poems
called the Mangal Kavyas also grew popular during this period. They propatated
the worship of local deities like Chandi and transformed Puranic Gods like Siva
and Vishnu into household deities.
In this regard,
a very important landmark was achieved by William Carey, who wrote a grammar of
Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books on dialogues
and stories. It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in
the development of a literature. They guide the writers as to the correctness
of a sentence and also help them in finding suitable words for a particular
situation and idea. Although the aim of the press run by the missionaries was
mainly to propagate Christian faith but other presses run by local people
helped in the flourishing of non-Christian literature. Scores of pamphlets,
small and big books and journals were produced. In the meantime education spread,
although at a very slow pace. But after 1835, when Macaulay won the battle against
Orientalists, it spread at a faster pace. In 1854 came Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch
and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established.
Besides textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature were also
produced. However it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides
English that gave impetus to Bengali literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
(1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820- 86) were two other writers of this
early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l834-94), Sharat
Chandra Chatterji (l876-1938), and R.C. Dutta, a noted historian and a prose
writer, all contributed to the making of Bengali literature. But the most
important name that influenced the whole of India was that of Rabindra Nath
Tagore (1861-1941). Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism, music and essays,
all flowed from his pen. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
However, a few things need to be noted about the influence of Western ideas
which permeated Bengal and later on other parts of India. Upto 1800, most of
the literature produced was limited to religion or courtly literature. The
Western influence brought the writers closer to the man in the street. The
subjects were mundane. Some religious literature was also produced but it
hardly said anything new.
The final years
of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century saw a new
subject, nationalism, being taken up. Two things were seen in this new trend.
The first was the love for old history and culture and an awareness of the
facts of British exploitation. The second was a clarion call for arousing the
Indians to drive out the foreigners, both by persuasion and force. This new
trend was expressed by Subrahmanyam Bharti in Tamil and Qazi Nazrul Islam in
Bengali. The contributions of these two writers in arousing the nationalistic
sentiments in the readers was tremendous. Their poetry was translated into other
Indian languages.
Assamese - Like
Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement. Shankardeva
who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese poetry.
Even the Puranas were translated in Assamese. The earliest Assamese literature
consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Shankardev has left several
devotional poems, which people song with rapturous pleasure, but it was only after
1827 that more interest was shown in producing Assamese literature. Two names, Lakshmi
Nath Bezbarua and Padmanaba Gohain Barua cannot be forgotten. From Orissa, a
couple of names are worth mentioning and these are Fakirmohan Senapati and
Radha Nath Ray, whose writings deserve considerable attention in the history of
Oriya literature. The works of Upendra Bhanja (1670 - 1720) were important as
they ushered a new period of Oriya literature. In Orissa the works of
Saraladasa are regarded as the first Works of Oriya
literature.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. When and were
was Baptist Presss established?
_______________________________________________________________
2. When did
Wood’s Derpatch come to India?
_______________________________________________________________
3. When and
where were three universities opened?
_______________________________________________________________
4. Which work of
Sh. R.N. Tagore won him Noble Prize in 1913?
_______________________________________________________________
5. How did Shan
Karadwa help in the growth of Assamese poetry.?
_______________________________________________________________
PUNJABI AND RAJASTHANI LITERATURE
Punjabi is a
language with several shades. It is being written in two scripts, Gurmukhi and Persian.
The Gurmukhi script till the end of the nineteenth century was almost limited
to the Adi Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs. Only a small number of
people tried to learn the script except the granthis, who recited the
holy Granth in the gurdwaras. However, the language did not lack literature.
Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi. Some other contemporary poets, mostly
Sufi saints, used to sing in this language. These Sufis or their followers used
the Persian script if they wanted to commit their poetry to writing. In this list,
the first name is that of Farid. His poetry has found a place in the Adi
Granth. The Adi Granth also contains poetry of the next four gurus.
All this literature belongs to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Amongst
the later gurus, the poetry of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur has also
contributed to the Adi Granth. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, was educated
in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt Persian and Sanskrit. He has composed two savaiyyas
in Punjabi but these are not a part of the Adi Granth. But it was
the love stories of Heer and Ranjha, Sasi and Punnu and Sohni and Mahiwal, which
gave this language its theme in the early days. Even the story of Puran Bhagat
found favour with some poets. Beautiful poems written by some known and some
unknown poets have come down to us. These are being sung by local singers for
the last two or three hundred years. There are several other poetic stories
which have been composed by the locals. This folklore has been preserved. The
most important of these is Heer of Waris Shah. It is the most popular of the
early works. It is a landmark in Punjabi poetry. Similar is the popularity of
Bulley Shah who was a Sufi saint. He has left a large number of songs.
One of his
popular forms of compositions was called kafi; it was sung in a
classical musical form. Kafis are sung by people with great fervour. In
the twentieth century, Punjabi had come into its own. Bhai Vir Singh composed
an epic, named Rana Surat Singh. Puran Singh and Dr. Mohan Singh are
among the best known writers. Essays, short stories, poetry, novels, criticism
and all other forms of writing have adorned the Punjabi literary scene.
Rajasthani, a
dialect of Hindi, had its own part to play. The bards (itinerant singers) moved
from place to place, providing entertainment and keeping the stories of heroes
alive. It was from these ballads that Colonel Todd collected the heroic stories
of Rajasthan and put them in the Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. But
the devotional songs of Mira Bai have a place of pride in the history of
language as well as devotional music. Mira Bai’s love for her lord (Lord
Krishna) is sometimes so intense that it transcends this mundane world and
transports one to the land of this singer. The development of the Bhakti
movement led to the rise of the different regional languages like Hindi,
Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu.
GUJARATI LITERATURE
Early Gujarati
literature is available in the form of Bhakti songs of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. It still follows the old tradition which is popular in Gujarat.
Narsi Mehta’s name is the foremost in this respect. The people of Gujarat wove
these devotional songs in their folk dances and their religious forms often
find expressions in their celebrations. Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to the
Gujarati literature. Saraswati Chandra, a novel by Govardhan Ram, has
become a classic and has given great impetus to other writers. But probably a
name that cannot be forgotten is that of Dr. K.M. Munshi. He was a novelist, an
essayist and a historian, and has left a plethora of historical novels. In
these books he exhibits his ability to mix fact with fiction. Prithvi
Vallabha is one of his finest novels. A special mention must be made of
Narsi Mehta whose songs in praise of Krishna not only made him a very popular
figure but also made Gujarati language popular.
SINDHI LITERATURE
Sindh was one of
the important centres of Sufis, who established khanqahs at various places.
The Sufi singers with their devotional music made the language popular. The
credit for creating literature in Sindhi goes to Mirza Kalish Beg and Dewan
Kauramal
MARATHI
LITERATURE
Maharashtra is
situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use. Marathi
grew out of these these local dialects. The Portuguese missionaries started
using Marathi for preaching their gospel. The earliest Marathi poetry and prose
is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in the thirteenth century. He
wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He was the one who started the kirtan
tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (l 270- 1350), Gora,
Sena and Janabai. All these sang and popularised the Marathi language. Their
songs are sung even today by the Verkari pilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur pilgrimage.
Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l 533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the
commentaries on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana. His songs are very
popular all over Maharashtra. Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to
be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all. Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of
Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He was the devotee of Rama. He
inspired Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth century saw an upsurge in
the Marathi literature. It was a nationalist movement that made Marathi prose
popular and prominent. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started his Journal Kesari
in Marathi. This helped the growth of Marathi literature. But the role of
Keshav Sut and V.S. Chiplunkar was no less. Hari Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote
novels which became very popular. All these prose writers made great
contribution to the development of Marathi literature. The name of H.G
Salgaokar is remembered for writing inspirational poetry. Besides, the names of
M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T. Madholkar (poet and novelist) are no less
important.
KASHMIRI LITERATURE
Kashmir shot
into literary prominence, when Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit But
this was in the language of the elite. For locals, Kashmiri was the popular
dialect. Here also the Bhakti movement played its role. One Lal Ded, who lived
in the fourteenth century, was probably the first to sing in the Kashmiri
language. She was a Shaivite mystic. After Islam spread in this area, the Sufi
influence also came to be visible. Haba Khatoon, Mahjoor, Zinda Kaul, Noor Din
also known as Nund Rishi, Akhtar Mohiuddin, Sufi Ghulam Mohammad and Dina Nath
Nadim wrote devotional poetry in Kashmiri. These people contributed to the
growth of Kashmiri literature. The Western influence did not reach Kashmir till
the end of the nineteenth century. In 1846, after the first Sikh War, the
Dogras of Jammu became the rulers there. The Dogras were more interested in
Dogri language than in Kashmiri. There were hardly any schools or education.
There was widespread poverty and economic backwardness. All these led to a lack
of good literature in Kashmir.
Though the list
of Modern Indian languages can have many languages, the constitution of India
has originally about 15 languages as national languages i.e. Assamese, Bengali,
Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Urdu,
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam. Three more langauges i.e. Nepali, Manipuri
and Konkani have been added now to the list.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which Indian
language was written in two scripts Gurumukhi and Persian?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Name at least
two love stories of Punjab?
_______________________________________________________________
3. Which was the
popular forms of compositions of Bulley Shah?
_______________________________________________________________
4. Name the
novel of Govardhan Ram?
_______________________________________________________________
5. Who started
Kirtan tradition in Maharashtra in the 13th century AD?
_______________________________________________________________
6. What reasons
led to a lack of good literature in Kashmiri?
_______________________________________________________________
ROLE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES
With the coming
of the Europeans to India various foreign languages like English, French, Dutch
and Portuguese were introduced here which greatly enriched Indian langauges as they
added many new words to their vocabulary. The contribution of the Christian
missionaries in the development of Indian literature was no less significant.
First of all, they published dictionaries and grammar in several local languages.
The books written by them were meant for the newly arrived clergymen from Europe.
These books helped these missionaries as much as they helped the writers in the
local languages. They could easily turn to the dictionaries to find a suitable
word or see if the word was grammatically correct.
The second fact
is the role of lithographic printing press, which was introduced in India in the
beginning of the nineteenth century. The foreigners had established these
presses for printing literature in local languages for the benefit of the new,
or would-be converts. Therefore, the role of printing press in the development
of literature cannot be ignored. The third important fact is the establishment
of schools and colleges by the missionaries. Here, besides English, the
missionaries also taught the local languages. Perhaps their aim was to spread
Christianity but they also produced a newly educated class, who had a desire to
read their literature. Thus, the role of missionaries cannot be ignored while
writing the history of Indian languages and literature.
Main Writers of
English Literature in India
In India there
were many writers of the English literature. The Indians started writing work
in English after 1835, when English was made the medium of instruction. Many
Indian writers composd their literature in English. Some of them showed their interest
in the field of poetry, while some others showed their keen interest in prose writing.
Michael Madhu Sudan Dutta, Taradutta, Sarojini Naidu and Ravindranath Tagore
made important contribution in the field of English Poetry. Surendra Nath Banerjee,
Firoze Shah Mehta and Jawahar Lal Nehru showed interest in English prose.
WHAT YOU HAVE
LEARNT
· Hindi was spoken
by a large number of people.
· Urdu and Persian
became popular in the Mughal era. Urdu was born out of the interaction
between Turkish
settlers and the local people. Abul Fazl, Chandra Bhan and Badayuni
were famous
writers of the Mughal era.
· Hindi literature
looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance. Bhakti poetry is a milestone
in Hindi
literature. Kabir, Tulsidas and Surdas were the guiding light of Hindi literature.
· In the beginning
of the nineteenth century Hindi prose came into existence.
· Next to Hindi,
the richest literature is that of Bengali. Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim
Chandra
Chatterji and Sharat Chandra Chatterji contributed to the making of Bengali
literature.
Assamese literature consisted of buranjis. Similar is the case with
Oriya.
· Till the end of
the nineteenth century, Gurmukhi was limited to Adi Granth; it was the
love stories of
Heer Ranjha which gave this language a theme. The devotional song of
Meera Bai gave a
place of honour to Rajasthani language and literature.
· Gujarati,
Sindhi, Marathi and Kashmiri also developed their literature in due course of
time.
· Many Indian
writers compsoed their writings in English.
TERMINAL
EXERCISE
1. What was the
role of the Christian missionaries in India?
2. Briefly
describe the development of Hindi language?
3. Explain the
role of Persian langauge in medieval India?
4. Identify the
contributions of Indian languages and literature in shaping of Indian society?
ANSWERS TO
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1
I. 1. Braj
Bhasha, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Rajasthani, Khadi Boli.
2. Avadhi
3. Urdu langauge
was born out of the interaction of Turkish settler with locals.
4. Pakistan
5. Dakshini or
Daccani (southern)
2
I. 1. Bharata
2. Tulsidas’
Rama is portrait as God while in Valimikhi’s He is portrait as Human
being.
3. Krishna as a
young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in delliance
with the
goppies.
Indian Languages
and Literature-II
4. Anand Math
5. Swami Dayanand
wrote in order to reform Hindu society. Munshi Premchand
wrote about the
miserable existance of the poor. Mahadevi Verma wrote about
the plight of
women.
3
I. 1. In 1800 at
Seerampur near Calcutta.
2. 1854
3. In 1857,
Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
4. Geetanjali
5. He introduced
Vaishnavism in Assam.
4
I. 1. Punjabi
2. Heer/Ranjha,
Sohni/Mahiwal, Sasi/Punnu
3. Kafi
4. Saraswati
Chandra
5. Saint
Jnaneshwar
6. Poverty,
economic backwardness and the use of Dogri.
